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[edit] Literary techniques文学技巧
A literary technique or literary device 文学设备may be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect on the reader. Literary technique is distinguished from literary genre ——文学类型——as military tactics are from military strategy.——就像军事战术不同于军事战略 Thus, though David Copperfield employs satire at certain moments, it belongs to the genre of comic novel,喜剧小说 not that of satire. By contrast, Bleak House employs satire so consistently as to belong to the genre of satirical novel——一贯的，所以是讽刺小说——. In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first modern novels, Pamela by Samuel Richardson, which by using the epistolary 书信技巧 technique strengthened the tradition of the epistolary novel,——书信小说的传统—— a genre which had been practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim.
[edit] Literary criticism文学批评
Also see: Literary criticism, Literary history, Literary theory
Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature ——批评和评价一部文学作品——and in some cases is used to improve a work in progress or classical piece. There are many types of literary criticism and each can be used to critique a piece in a different way or critique a different aspect of a piece.
[edit] Legal status
[edit] UK
Literary works have been protected by copyright law from unauthorised reproduction since at least 1710.[2] Literary works are defined by copyright law to mean any work, other than a dramatic or musical work, which is written, spoken or sung, and accordingly includes (a) a table or compilation (other than a database), (b) a computer program, (c) preparatory design material for a computer program, and (d) a database.
It should be noted that literary works are not limited to works of literature, but include all works expressed in print or writing (other than dramatic or musical works)——————————————————————————
A literary genre is a category of literary composition.——是文学写作的一种分类—— Genres may be determined by literary technique,通过文学技法 tone,音调, 音质, 语调, 色调, 状况, 品质, 语气, 气氛 content,内容 or even (as in the case of fiction) length.甚至长度
Genre should not be confused with age category——年代分类——, by which literature may be classified as either adult, young-adult, or children's.——成年的，年轻人到成年的，儿童的作品——
The distinctions between genres and categories are flexible and loosely defined, often with subgroups.
The most general genres in literature are (in loose chronological 年月日次序[顺序] order) epic, tragedy,[1] comedy, novel, short story, and creative nonfiction.——史诗，悲剧，喜剧，短篇小说，创造性非小说——[citation needed]
They can all be in the genres prose or poetry,
——诗歌和散文—— which shows best how loosely genres are defined.
Additionally, a genre such as satire, allegory or pastoral ——讽刺，寓言或者田园文学——might appear in any of the above, not only as a sub-genre (see below), but as a mixture of genres. Finally, they are defined by the general cultural movement ——文学运功——of the historical period ——历史时期——in which they were composed. The concept of "genre" has been criticized by Jacques Derrida—————————————————
Sub-genres
Genres are often divided into sub-genres. Literature, for instance, is divided into three basic kinds of literature, the classic genres of Ancient Greece, ——古希腊的经典分类——poetry, drama, and prose.——诗歌，戏剧和散文——
Poetry may then be subdivided into epic, lyric, and dramatic.史诗，抒情诗和戏剧诗——
Subdivisions of drama include foremost comedy and tragedy, ——戏剧和悲剧——while eg. comedy itself has sub-genres, including farce,闹剧 comedy of manners,——风尚戏剧—— burlesque,——滑稽表演—— satire,——讽刺文学—— and so on. However, any of these terms would be called "genre", and its possible more general terms implied.
Dramatic poetry, for instance, might include comedy, tragedy, melodrama,——情节剧—— and mixtures like tragicomedy. ——悲喜剧——This parsing into sub-genres can continue: "comedy" has its own genres, including, for example, comedy of manners, 风尚喜剧sentimental comedy,感伤喜剧 burlesque comedy,滑稽喜剧 and satirical comedy.讽刺喜剧
Creative nonfiction can cross many genres but is typically expressed in essays, memoir,论文集 and other forms that may or may not be narrative ——不是叙述性的——but share the characteristics of being fact-based,——基于这个特点：基于事实的—— artistically-rendered prose.——艺术呈现是散文式的——
Often, the criteria used to divide up works into genres are not consistent, and may change constantly, and be subject of argument, change and challenge by both authors and critics. However, even a very loose term like fiction ("literature created from the imagination,——通过想象而创造—— not presented as fact, though it may be based on a true story or situation"——尽管可能基于真是的故事和情景——) is not universally applied to all fictitious literature, but instead is typically restricted to the use for novel, short story, and novella, but not fables, and is also usually a prose text.
Genres may easily be confused with literary techniques, but, though only loosely defined, they are not the same; examples are parody, Frame story,——结构故事—— constrained writing,——强迫性写作—— stream of consciousness. 意识流————————————————————
A literary technique or literary device is an identifiable rule of thumb,单凭经验的方法 convention or structure ——习惯或者是结构——that is employed in literature and storytelling.——故事讲述的过程中——
Literary techniques are important aspects of an author's style,——风格的重要方面—— which is one of the five elements of fiction,——5个小说元素—— along with character, plot, setting and theme.——人物，情结，环境设置和主题——
Literary devices refer to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal function —— 一般功能——as an art form which expresses ideas through language, ——通过语言表达思想——which we can recognize, identify, interpret and/or analyze.——可以承认，鉴别，解释和分析—— Literary devices collectively comprise the art form’s components; the means by which authors create meaning through language, and by which readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They also provide a conceptual framework ——构思范围, 概念范围, 基本概念 ——for comparing individual literary works to others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques can rightly be called literary devices.——————————————————————————
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