Duckling in the crowd

 

Lexical categories 词类

　　Major Lexical Categories主要词类

　　Noun（N）\ Verb（V）\Adjective（Adj）\Adverb（Adv） 名词、动词、形容词、副词

　　Minor Lexical Categories

　　Determiner（Det）\Auxiliary（Aux）\Preposition（Prep）\Pronoun（Pron）\Conjunction（Conj）\Interjection（Int）限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词Phrasal categories词组类

　　Noun phrase （NP）\Verb phrase （VP）\Prepositional phrase（PP）\Adjective phrase（AP）

　　名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语Grammatical relations 语法关系

　　Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.

　　语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。

　　The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语

　　The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）

　　逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）Combinational rules 组合规则

　　Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则

　　短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

　　NP-Det N （a/the man）

　　NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）

　　The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性

　　These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。

　　X-bar theory X标杆理论

　　（X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则的理论。）一定要结合书本！Syntactic movement and movement rules

　　移位规则

　　NP-movement and WH-movement

　　名词词组移位和WH移位

　　五、语义学

　　什么是语义学

　　命名论

　　意念论

　　语境论

　　行为主义论

　　意义和所指

　　主要的意义关系

　　句子间的意义的关系

　　成分分析

　　述谓结构分析

　　semantics语义学

　　semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning 对语义的研究

　　（In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view）本章将只限于讨论语言学家对语义的研究Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论

　　The naming theory: the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 命名论是最原始的语义理论， 该理论把词看做是该词所指事务的名称或标记。 （想一想缺陷在哪里？）

　　The conceptualist view: that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers；rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论人为词汇和该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直接的， 而是间接的， 其中介是存在于人的头脑的意念,词汇通过意念来指称事物， 意念便是词汇的意义。

　　Contextualism : is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.

　　语境论人为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境， 语义不是抽象的， 它存在于语境之中， 它来自语境取决于语境。

　　举例：the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. （seal:海象）

　　the seal could not be found. The king became worried. （seal:印章）Behaviorism: behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer." This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.（语义的行为主义和语义的语境有相似之处， 它也把语义放到语境中去研究， 但它更注重人的心理活动，人为语言的意义在于语言使用者在交际过程中对所听到话语的反应。

　　lexical meaning 词汇意义

　　sense and reference

　　Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

　　意义是词汇内在的， 抽象的游离于语境之外的意义

　　Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

　　所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。major sense relation主要的意义关系 （请结合《词汇学》学习）

　　Synonymy同义关系

　　Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

　　Dialectal synonyms: autumn （BE）, fall （AmE）

　　Stylistic synonyms: start/begin

　　Collocational synonyms: accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke……for

　　Semantically different synonyms: amaze/astound/surprisePolysemy多义关系

　　Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning

　　Homonymy同形异义

　　When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.同音字 （night/knight）

　　When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 同形异义字 （n. tear/ v. tear）Hyponymy上下义

　　Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

　　Superordinate（上位）：flower

　　Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily…Antonymy反义

　　The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

　　Gradable antonyms:cool/warm/lukewarm

　　Complementary antonyms：male/female

　　Relational opposites: teacher/pupil, doctor/patientSense relations between sentences 句子间的语义关系

　　X is synonymous with Y. 同义关系

　　Eg：X：He was a bachelor all his life.

　　Y: He never married all his life.

　　X is inconsistent with Y. 矛盾关系

　　Eg：X：He is married.

　　Y: He is a bachelor

　　X entails Y. （Y is an entailment of X） 蕴涵关系 Y>X

　　Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.

　　蕴涵是包含关系， 如果X继承Y， 则意味着Y包含X的意义。

　　Eg：X: He likes swimming.

　　Y: He likes sports

　　X presupposes Y. （Y is a prerequisite of X）预设关系

　　Eg：X: His bike needs repairing.

　　Y: He has a bike

　　X is a contradiction

　　X is semantically anomalous

　　Analysis of meaning 意义分析

　　componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析

　　Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

　　成分分析法是以分析词汇抽象意义的一种方法。它把词汇分析为一个个具有区别作用的语义特征，根据词汇是否包含这些特征来研究、区分词汇意义。

　　Eg:"man"——+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEpredication analysis ——a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析

　　A predication consists of argument（s） and predicate.谓述结构由论元与谓词组成

　　论元：句子中的出现的担任成分意义的名词。

　　Two-place predication （containing two arguments）

　　One-place predication （containing one argument）

　　No-place predication （containing no argument）

　　Eg：The man sells ice-cream-two-place predication MAN, ICE-CREAM（SELL）

　　It is snowing-no-place predication （SNOW） 注:这里的it不能看做是论元。

　　The tree grows well——one-place predication TREE（GROW）

　　第六章 语用学

　　第一节 什么是语用学

　　（1） 定义

　　（2） 语用学和语义学

　　（3） 语境

　　（4） 句子意义和话语意义

　　第二节 言语行为理论

　　第三节 会话原则

　　Pragmatics 语用学

　　Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.

　　对语用学可以作多种不同的定义， 但关键是要认识到语用学本质上是一种意义研究， 是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。

　　Pragmatics vs. semantics 语用学与语义学

　　The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.

　　语用学和语义学两者都是对意义的研究，它们根本的区别在于语义学研究的语言的抽象意义， 语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。

　　Context语境

　　Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境可以理解为交际双方共有的知识。

　　Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义

　　Utterance-meaning is based on sentence-meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.

　　句子意义是抽象的， 是句子的语义内容；话语意义基于句子意义， 是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化， 体现说话的人意图和目的。

　　Speech act theory言语行为理论

　　According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

　　英国哲学家奥斯汀提出， 在说话时， 说话人很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为， 言外行为和言后行为。

　　Eg：You have left the door wide open.

　　locutionary act: "you", "have", "door", "open"

　　illocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.

　　perlocutionary act:refers to the effect of the utterance. Whether got the information and close the door

　　Classification of illocutionary act by Searle 美国语言学家舍尔把言外行为分为5类：

　　Representatives: sating what the speaker believes to be true.

　　Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.

　　Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future action.

　　Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

　　Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something

　　Principle of conversation 会话原则

　　Cooperative principle （CP）:合作原则

　　The maxim of quality 量准则

　　The maxim of quality质准则

　　The maxim of relation关联准则

　　The maxim of manner方式准则

　　第七章 历史语言学

　　第一节 研究语言变化的目的与意义

　　第二节 语言变化的本质

　　第三节 英语的历史发展

　　（1） 英语历史发展的主要阶段

　　（2） 英语语言系统的变化

　　第四节 语系

　　（1） 语系的划分

　　（2） 印欧语系

　　第五节 语言变化的原因

　　（1） 语音的同化

　　（2） 规则的简化与统一

　　（3） 内部借用

　　（4） 社会因素

　　（5） 文化传播

　　（6） 儿童语言习得

　　Historical linguistics

　　Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. （or historical development of language）

　　历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。

　　The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的与意义

　　The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different language.

　　研究语言变化是对人类本身及其语言能力的再认识。 通过对语言变化史的研究， 我们可以对人类语言的形成与发展规律、各族语言的亲缘关系、语言发展和语言所处的社会历史环境的关系有一个深刻认识。

　　The nature of language change 语言变化的本质

　　As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.

　　语言变化是普遍的， 持续的， 在一定的程度范围内规则的， 系统的变化。The historical development of English 英语的历史发展

　　Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段

　　Old English古英语 （roughly from 449 to 1100）

　　Middle English 中古英语（roughly from 1100 to 1500）

　　Modern English现代英语 （roughly from 1500 to the present）1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period （450-1100） （vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000）

　　2 Middle English Period （1150-1500）

　　3 Modern English Period （1500-now）: in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostLinguistic change of English 英语语言系统的变化 （loss， addition， 许多变化都表现为规则的失去、增加、外借和变异）

　　Sound change语音系统的变化

　　Morphological change 形态系统的变化

　　Syntactic change句法系统的变化

　　Lexical change词汇系统的变化

　　Semantic change语义系统的变化Language family 语系

　　Classifying genetically related languages 语系的划分

　　There is about 30 language families, 4 language families are considered to be the most important, namely, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.

　　世界上有4千多种语言，分别隶属印欧、汉藏等30个语系。

　　The Indo-European language family 印欧语系

　　It has a membership of about 150 languages, including most European languages and Indian Subcontinental languages. It is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.

　　印欧语系锁骨历史语言学家研究最早和最深的一种语系。 印欧语系含大部分欧洲语言和印度次大陆语言在内的约150种语言。

　　The Indo-European Language Family

　　The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages

　　The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.

　　The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.

　　The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.

　　The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.

　　The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.

　　The Italian Group（意大利语族）：

　　Latin,Romance languages（French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian） etc.

　　The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.

　　The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：

　　Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian（Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic） etc

　　The cause of language change 语言变化的原因

　　Sound assimilation语音同化

　　Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.

　　语音同化是指一个音受其毗邻的音的音响而发生音变， 使其发音变得与毗邻的音接近。

　　"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一

　　It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns

　　英语名词复数的形式有规则形态变化与不规则形态变化两种， 在英语演化过程中， 由于不规则形态趋于规则化， 所以复数形式趋向简化。Internal borrowing 内部借用

　　Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.

　　引起语言变化的又一原因是旨在减轻记忆复旦的语言规则的内部借用现象。

　　Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration规则的细化

　　Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.

　　为了避免出现模棱两可、含糊不清的词句， 或为了提高语言表达上的准确性往往需要增加一些规则，致使句法规则更加细化。Social triggers社会因素

　　Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.

　　Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.

　　促使语言变化的原因不仅有语言内部的， 更多的是来自语言系统外部的社会环境的变化， 如：侵略战争、殖民化政策、政府推行的语言规划政策或标准化运动等。Cultural transmission 文化传播

　　One of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.

　　Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"

　　语言变化的原因还在于， 层出不穷的新观念和新事物需要人们用新的词语去表达。Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童语言习得

　　The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.

　　儿童在习得母语时接收到了各种语言信息和表达习惯， 儿童往往偏向于习得简化了的或规则化的表达方式， 语言演化也就自然出现了。