Duckling in the crowd

 

　　语言学作为一门独立的学科来研究还是人类文化历史新近发展的产物。在它刚刚出现时，对于语言学到底算不算科学曾经有很大的争论。但是现在这种争论已经渐渐消失了，语言学在科学领域已经建立了牢固的地位。在中国，语言的学习已经有很长的历史了，但是现代语言学的研究却还需要经历很长时间才能赶超世界水平。

　　简述所学各章

　　1、绪论：（linguistics and language）什么是语言学，什么是语言？

　　2、音位学（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的区别特征，音位变体，音位分布、对立，超音段音位等作了介绍。

　　3、形态学（morphology）：研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则

　　4、句法学（syntax）：句法学是一门关于自然语言的句子结构的学问，是普通语言学的核心内容之一。本讲座含语言的规则系统，句子结构，语法关系，组合规则与移位规则和普通语法等六部分，对句法体系，句子语法性和句法心理现实性，句子成分和基本类型，句子的线性与层次性等作了说明。

　　5、语义学（semantics）：就语义的定义，研究目标，语义理论的形式化和应用，语义学的历史发展，词汇语义学及句子语义学展开介绍。

　　6、语用学（pragmatics）：就语用学的起源及定义，语用学和语义学的比较，语境的理解，及语用研究的重要原则等展开讲解。

　　7、历史语言学（historical linguistics）：语言的变化。研究语言变化的目的和意义、语言变化的本质、英语的历史发展、语系和语言变化的原因等五部分。

　　8、社会语言学（sociolinguistics）：社会语境中的语言。语言变异与语用情景、方言及方言使用的社会功能、双言与双语现象、少数民族方言、社会方言等五部分。

　　9、心理语言学（psycholinguistics）：学习语言与心脑的关系。包括语言的生理基础、语言侧化、语言中枢、失语症研究、语言习得的关键期和语言与思维的关系等六部分。

　　10、语言习得（language acquisition）：人类语言能力的获得机器发展的过程。

　　一、绪论

　　语言学的定义

　　语言学的研究范畴

　　几对基本概念

　　语言的定义

　　语言的甄别特征

　　What is linguistics？ 什么是语言学？

　　Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴

　　Phonetics语音学\Phonology音系学\Morphology形态学\Syntax句法学\Semantics语义学\Pragmatics语用学\Sociolinguistics社会语言学\Psycholinguistics心理语言学\Applied linguistics应用语言学Pres criptive vs. des criptive 规定性与描述性

　　Des criptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.

　　Pres criptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.

　　Modern linguistics is des criptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.

　　Traditional grammar is pres criptive; it is based on "high" written language

　　Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性

　　The des cription of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study

　　The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study

　　In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study

　　Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

　　Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:

　　（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution

　　（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing

　　（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language

　　Language and parole 语言与言语

　　Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community

　　Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use

　　Competence and performance 能力与运用

　　Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language

　　Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication

　　What is language？ 什么是语言？

　　Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

　　Characteristics of language: 语言的特性

　　Language is a rule-governed system

　　Language is basically vocal

　　Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）

　　Language is used for human communication

　　Design features of language 语言的甄别特征

　　American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:

　　1） arbitrariness 武断性

　　2） productivity 创造性

　　3） duality 二重性

　　4） displacement移位性

　　5） cultural transmission 文化传递性

　　二、音系学

　　语言的声音媒介

　　什么是语音学

　　发音器官

　　音标……宽式和严式标音法

　　英语语音的分类

　　音系学和语音学

　　语音、音位、音位变体

　　音位对立、互补分部、最小对立

　　几条音系规则

　　超切分特征

　　Two major media of communication: speech and writing

　　The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.

　　Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

　　Organs of speech 发音器官

　　The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:

　　The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat

　　The oral cavity口腔——the mouth

　　The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose

　　Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。单词补充：

　　01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭

　　02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块

　　03） larynx: n. 喉

　　04） vocal cord: 声带

　　05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官

　　06） the soft palate: 软腭

　　07） the hard palate: 硬腭

　　08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈

　　09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床

　　10） the teeth: 牙齿

　　11） the lips: 上下唇

　　12） blade of tongue: 舌面

　　13） back of tongue: 舌根

　　14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔

　　15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔

　　16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）

　　17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖

　　18） the upper front teeth: 上齿

　　19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚

　　20） the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）

　　The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（单元音&双元音）

　　The constants 辅音

　　Broad trans cription: trans cription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）

　　用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。

　　Narrow trans cription: the trans cription with diacritics.

　　但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。

　　在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。

　　Classification of English speech sounds

　　英语语音的分类

　　The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.

　　Classification of English constants

　　英语辅音分类

　　此主题相关图片如下： Classification of English vowels

　　:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低

　　:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度

　　:the shape of the lips园唇与否

　　:length of the vowels元音的长度此主题相关图片如下： Phonology 音系学

　　Phonology and phonetics

　　音系学和语音学

　　Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.

　　语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。

　　Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

　　音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。

　　Phone，phoneme and allophone

　　语音，音位，音位变体Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.

　　语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。

　　Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.

　　音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。

　　The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

　　音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

　　音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对

　　rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.

　　可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。

　　/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

　　When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben]

　　最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Some rules in phonology几条音系规则

　　Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.

　　Assimilation rules 同化规则

　　Deletion rule 省略规则

　　Sign, design, there is no {g} sound

　　Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.

　　Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant

　　Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation

　　超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调

　　the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;

　　超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。

　　三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学 请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。

　　语素：语言最小的意义单位

　　语素的类型

　　复合词的类型

　　复合词的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.

　　形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.

　　语素：语言最小的意义单位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）

　　自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.

　　粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词

　　Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀）

　　1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）:

　　affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional

　　2）Derivational affixes（派生词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix

　　An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.

　　free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme（词素）

　　Bound root prefix

　　bound derivational

　　affix suffix

　　inflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）

　　1） Root 2） Stem

　　The differences between root and stem:

　　A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

　　A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.

　　Individualistic Undesirables

　　Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）

　　Individual （stem） desirable （stem）

　　dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）

　　divide（root, stem）Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.

　　Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.

　　1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.

　　2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.

　　3）'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.

　　4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.

　　5）'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.

　　6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.

　　7）'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.

　　8）'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.

　　9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-

　　Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.

　　1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding复合法 （also called composition）

　　Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems

　　Formation of compounds

　　Noun + noun（名词＋名词） ――― handbook, sunshine

　　Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）―――highway, deadline

　　Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed

　　Verb + noun（动词＋名词）―――driveway, breakwater（挡水板）

　　Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）―――downtown, overburden

　　Noun + verb（名词＋动词）―――toothpick, snowfall

　　Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）―――follow-up, kick-off

　　Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）―――world-famous, lifelong

　　-ing form + noun（ing+名词）―――baking power, dining-room

　　other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds复合词的特征

　　1.Orthographically书写特征

　　（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）

　　2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性）

　　3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和）

　　4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上）

　　四、句法学

　　句子的构成

　　句子的类型

　　句子的线性排列与层次结构

　　词类

　　词组类

　　短语结构规则

　　短语结构 规则的循环性

　　X标杆理论

　　名词词组移位与WH移位

　　其他类型的移位

　　深层结构与表层结构

　　移动a规则

　　普遍语法原则

　　普遍语法参数

　　Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.

　　As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.

　　句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。

　　Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

　　句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。

　　The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Types of sentences句子的类型

　　The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子

　　The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分

　　The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

　　The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构

　　The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的次都按线性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.

　　句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure

　　S NP VP

　　V S

　　NP VP

　　V NP

　　John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class

　　The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点）Syntactic categories 句法类型

　　Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to