第二单元

第一课

The Adversary System 对抗制

 

The law of procedure can be divided into criminal and civil. 在程序法可分为刑事和民事。

Civil procedure is the body of rules by which the parties in civil litigation use the court to settle disputes. 民事程序规则 ， 使在民事诉讼案件中 ， 双方使用的法庭解决争端机构。

 

Generally, the party bringing the lawsuit to the court is called the plaintiff, and the party against whom the action is brought is called the defendant. 一般来说，使党的诉讼向法院被称为原告，以及所针对的当事人的诉讼是被称为被告。

On appeal, the appealing party is usually referred to as appellant, and the winning party at trial is called the appellee. 在上诉中，上诉方通常被称为上诉人，并在审判中获胜的政党称为被上诉人。

 

In most states and in the federal courts, all persons may join in one lawsuit as plaintiffs if the causes of action arise out of the same transaction or series of transactions and involve common questions of law or fact. 在大多数州和联邦法院，所有的人可以参加诉讼的原告之一 ， 如果行动的原因产生于同一交易或一系列交易 ， 涉及法律或事实的常见问题了.

In addition, the plaintiff may join as defendants all persons who are necessary to a complete determination or settlement of the issues. 此外，原告为被告可以加入所有的人谁是必要的一个完整的裁定或问题的解决。

if a defendant alleges that a complete determination of a controversy cannot be made without other parties, that defendant may bring in new third parties as third-party defendants. 如果被告称 ， 争议的一个完整的决心 ， 不能在没有其他各方，即被告人可能带来的第三方被告新的第三方。

The procedure is usually followed when someone is liable to a defendant who, in turn, is liable to the plaintiff.该过程通常是遵循人即属违法 ， 被告谁，又是对原告承担责任。

 

A distinctive element of the Anglo-American judicial procedure is the adversary system, which is the characteristic form of trial procedure in common law countries, in civil as well as criminal cases. 一个英美司法程序独特的因素是对手的制度，这是对审判程序的普通法国家的独特形式，民事以及刑事案件英寸

Its essential feature is that a decision is made by judge, or judge with jury, who finds the facts and applies the law from submissions made by partisan advocates on behalf of the parties.其基本特征是决定是由法官或法官与陪审团，谁发现的事实和适用于由党派主张就各方代表提交的法律。

In this system of trial procedure, the responsibility for beginning suit, for shaping the issues, and for producing evidence rests almost entirely upon the parties to the controversy. 在这种审判程序的制度，开始诉讼的责任，塑造的问题，并提供证据在于 ，几乎完全取决于各方的争议。

The court takes almost no active part. 法院也几乎没有任何积极的作用。 It does not do its own investigating. 它没有做自己的调查。 It rarely even asks a question. 它甚至很少问一个问题。

Most often it is only responsible for guiding the proceeding according to certain procedural rules and for making decisions on questions of law that arise. 最常见的是只负责指导工作正按照一定的程序规则和制定有关法律的问题出现的决定。

This system is to be contrasted with what is generally called the inquisitorial system, which is used in countries of the civil law tradition such as France and Germany. 这一系统是与人们的一般所谓的调查制度，这在民法传统的国家使用 ，例如法国和德国形成鲜明对比。

In the inquisitorial system of trial, the judge applies the law and finds the facts by his own active investigation and inquiries at trial. 在审判调查制度，法官适用法律 ， 并认为他自己积极的调查和审判时查询的事实。

 

Under the adversary system, the scope of lawyers\' power and responsibility is wide. 对抗制下，律师的范围\'权力和责任很大。

It is the lawyer who makes the initial and usually final decisions as to choice of court, size of claim, nature of claim, parties, extent and kind of pre-trial investigation, mode of trial ( whether jury or non-jury ), settlement offers, extent and kind of proof, style of presentation and argument, and, within limits, speed and vigor of presentation. 这是律师谁使以法院选择的最初 ， 通常最后决定，索赔的大小，索赔，政党，程度和前一种性质试验调查，审讯方式（无论是陪审团还是非陪审团），交收提供，范围和种类的证据，提出和论证的作风，在一些限制，速度和演示活力。

Judges are called on to intervene only occasionally and then briefly, to ensure that all the procedural safeguards are met and essential fairness is achieved. 法官呼吁只是偶尔进行干预 ， 然后简单，以确保所有的程序保障和基本符合公平的实现。

 

The reasons for the prence of the adversary system are manifold. 为对抗制的普遍现象的原因是多方面的。 First, it is believed that a truer decision will be reached as a result of a contest directed by interested parties. 首先，它相信 ， 一个更真实的决定将作为一个由有关各方所指示的比赛结果达成协议。

Second, since the parties have a direct interest in the resolution of the dispute, they should bear the burden of the time and energy required. 第二，由于各方在解决争端的直接利益，他们应该承担所需的时间和精力的负担。

Third, setting up sides reduces the determination of the suit to some yes-or-no questions, which are easier for an unbiased judge. 第三，建立双方减少了一些诉讼的决心是或否的问题，更便于不偏不倚的法官。

Fourth, the human instinct to do battle is better satisfied by a contest that is very much in the hands of the parties.第四，人类的本能 ， 这样的斗争是更好地满足于一大竞争 ， 是非常各方的手中。

 

Contrasted with the methods of scientific or historical research, this system of finding answers to legal controversies seems sometimes unsatisfactory. 与科学和历史研究方法形成鲜明对照，这种法律上的争议寻求答案 ， 系统似乎有时不能令人满意。

When one reflects on the fact that under the adversary system victory often turns on factors other than the true merits of the case, there is reason to be skeptical about it. 当一个人的事实 ， 在对抗制的胜利因素往往比事件的真实案情其他轮流反映，但有理由对此持怀疑态度。

Critics of the adversary system point out that it tends to reduce litigation to a costly game, in which the lawyers become the principal players and the outcome will turn on their skills rather than on the true merits of the case. 对抗制的批评者指出 ， 它往往以减少昂贵的诉讼游戏，在律师成为主要的球员和结果将自己的专业技能打开 ， 而不是对事件的真实案情。

In recent times there has been a trend toward increasing the affirmative or active functions of the court that reflects the larger trend away from the sporing or game theory of litigation. 近来出现了对越来越多的法院， 大趋势 ， 反映了从芽胞或游戏以外的诉讼理论的肯定或积极作用的趋势。

Nonetheless, it cannot be questioned that in the United States the primary responsibility and control over almost all phases of the judicial process continue to reside in the parties. 但是，它不能质疑 ， 在美国的主要责任 ， 对几乎所有的司法程序阶段的控制继续居住在该缔约国。

Full understanding of the American legal procedure will require our constant attention to the existence of the adversary system as well as critical analysis of its shortcomings. 美国法定程序充分理解 ， 需要我们不断关注对手制度的存在以及其缺点的批判性分析。

 

 

第二课

 

　                        Commencing a Legal Action开始采取法律行动

 

Lawsuits do not begin themselves.诉讼没有开始自己。 Someone must first decide to sue someone else for an alleged injury.有人必须首先决定起诉被指控伤害别人。

 

But before making the decision to sue, the potential litigant must first consider whether the injury is one for which the law furnishes a relief.但在作出决定起诉，潜在的诉讼当事者必须首先考虑是否损伤之一，法律外墙一种解脱。

If he believes so, he must next consider the probability of winning the lawsuit, ie, whether he can find and bring to court the person who has injured him, and whether he can produce the witnesses and evidence that will prove the case.如果他相信，你一定要下考虑打赢官司，即概率，他是否能找到并提请法院谁损害了他的人，他是否能产生证人和证据，以证明如此。

And then, perhaps most important of all, he must ask himself whether the lawsuit is worth the time, the effort and the expenses it will cost, or whetherother alternatives, among them settlement, arbitration, self-help and letting matters rest, are better. 然后，也许最重要的是，他必须问自己是否值得诉讼的时间，精力和费用，将成本，或是否有其他替代品，其中包括解决，仲裁，自助，让其余的问题，更好。

After all these factors have been considered and the potential litigant decides to commence a legal action, he must then consider to which court he should bring the case.毕竟这些因素被认为和潜力当事人决定开始采取法律行动，他必须考虑到他应该哪个法院提起诉讼。

A lawsuit must be brought before a court that has the power to hear the case.诉讼，必须先交由法院有权受理此案。

The power to hear the case is know as jurisdiction, which has two aspects: jurisdiction over the subject matter and jurisdiction overthe parties, the former means that the lawsuit must be of the type that the court was created to decide.有权审理此案的管辖权知道，它在题材和管辖权各方两个方面：管辖权，前者指的诉讼必须是法庭的设立是为了决定类型。

A criminal court would have no jurisdiction in a divorce matter.阿刑事法院就没有在离婚诉讼事项的管辖。

A federal district court will not have jurisdiction over many disputes (disputes, for example, over damages for breach of contract between citizens of one state), because the subject matter jurisdiction of federal courts is limited by the Constitution. 联邦地区法院不会对（例如纠纷，许多纠纷的管辖权，对损害赔偿之间的一个国家的公民违反合同），因为这个事项的管辖权  联邦法院是有限的宪法。

A court must also have jurisdiction over the parties.阿法院还必须对当事人的管辖权。

Its jurisdiction over the plaintiff is established when the plaintiff files the suit with the court and thus voluntarily submits to its jurisdiction.其对原告的管辖范围，建立档案时，原告与法院提起诉讼，从而自愿提交其管辖权。

Jurisdiction over the defendant is accomplished by the service of a summons对被告的管辖权是通过在送达传票 issued by the court.法庭发出。

Service of a summons is not much of a problem if the defendant is a citizen of the forum state.送达传票没有太多的一个问题，如果被告是论坛的国家的公民。

If this is not the case, the assertion of jurisdiction will have to depend on whether the defendant has minimum contacts with the state to satisfy the due process clause of the Constitution.如果不是这样，对管辖权的主张将取决于被告是否与国家接触，以满足最低限度的正当程序的宪法条款。

If the defendant has no minimum contacts with the forum state, there will be no basis for jurisdiction over his person, and service cannot be effected.如果被告已与论坛国家没有最低的接触，就没有管辖权的基础对他的人，服务不能生效。

Service of summons in a few cases may be effected by publishing a notice in a newspaper. Most cases, however, require the actual service of a summons to the defendant in order to give him notice of the suit.送达传票，在少数情况下可能会影响出版一份报纸通知。多数病例，但是，需要传唤的实际服务，被告为了给他的诉讼通知。

Very often, more than on court in a state have jurisdiction over a case.很多时候，就多在一国法院有管辖权的案件。

To select among them the question of venue must be considered.以其中选择地点问题必须予以考虑。

Venue relates to ,and defines, the particular territorial area within the state in which a legal action is to take place.地点有关，并定义，内部状态，采取法律行动时，要进行特别的领土面积。

Matters of venue are usually determined by statute.场地时，通常取决于章程。

For example, venue statutes in most states provide that actions concerning interests in land must be commenced and tried in the county or district in which the land is located.例如，在大多数州场所的法规，行动涉及的土地权益，必须展开，并在县或地区的土地所在审判。

Suits for divorce must be commenced and tried in the county in which one of the parties resides.诉讼离婚必须展开，并于县在其中一方居住审判。

 

 

第三课

                    Pleadings and Motions Attacking Pleadings 状和动议攻击诉状

 

Civil litigation begins with the pleadings.民事诉讼状书开始。 A pleading is a legal document filed with the court that sets forth the position and contentions of a party.阿承认是一个法律文件，与法院，阐明的立场和提出的党的争论。 The purpose of pleadings in civil actions is to define the issues of the lawsuits.在诉状中民事诉讼的目的是确定诉讼的问题。 This is accomplished by each party making allegations of fact and the other party either admitting the allegations or denying them. 这是通过每一个事实的指控使党和其他政党都承认或否认指控他们。

The first of the pleadings is usually called a complaint.诉状的第一个通常称为投诉。 A complaint is a written statement which sets forth the plaintiff's allegations against the defendant.投诉是书面声明，阐述了对被告的原告的指控。 To be legally sufficient, a complaint must contain one or more "causes of action", that is, one or more sets of facts or allegations that make up the legal grounds for filing a lawsuit, such as "breach of contract" or "fraud".在法律上是充足的，投诉必须包含一个或多个“行动的原因”，即，一个或更多的事实和指控集，弥补备案，如“诉讼的法律依据，违反合同”或“欺诈“。 Besides, a complaint must state the plaintiff's claim, ie, what relief he is seeking to obtain.此外，投诉必须说明原告的主张，即他是什么救济寻求获得。

After the plaintiff files with the clerk of the court his complaint, the clerk issues a summons, which, together with a copy of the complaint, is served on the defendant.经与法院提出申诉书记原告的文件，秘书发出传票，其中，连同起诉书的副本，是向被告送达。 The summons directs the defendant to appear and defend under penalty of default, and notifies him of the date by which he is required to file his response.传票指示被告人出庭和辩护的违约罚款规定，并通知了他所需要文件的日期，他的回应他。 Service of summons may be effected by the plaintiff or a court official, and must be of a kind reasonably calculated to bring the action to the defendant's notice.送达传票可透过原告或法庭官员，必须是一个合理的计算提出诉讼的被告的这类公告。 In cases where the defendant in order to gie him notice of the suit.在被告的情况下，以耶他的诉讼通知。

   Following the service of the plaintiff's complaint, the defendant must respond.后原告的投诉服务，被告必须作出反应。 If he has no basis to attack the sufficiency of the complaint, he may simply file an entry of appearance, which means that he admits the truth of all allegations in the complaint.如果他没有理由攻击的投诉是否够用，他可能只是文件的外观入境，这意味着他承认，在投诉的所有指控的真相。 In most cases, however, the defendant will file an answer either admitting or denying each material allegation of the complaint.在大多数情况下，然而，被告将提交答辩或者承认或否认每一个申诉材料的指控。 The answer will put in issue the allegations of the complaint that are denied.答案将在问题提出的申诉是否认这些指控。 In addition to admissions and denials, the defendant may also make affirmative defenses and counterclaims in the answer.除了入学和否认，被告也可在答案肯定防御和反诉。 An affirmative defense is an excuse or the assertion of some extenuating circumstances.肯定的国防是借口，还是有一些情有可原的说法。 A counterclaim asks for relief or damages from the plaintiff or sometimes from others.阿反诉要求原告或由他人，有时救济或赔偿。 The counterclaim is in essence a complaint by the defendant, and the plaintiff will have to respond to it.在反本质上是由被告投诉，原告将不得不作出反应。

Upon receipt of the defendant's answer, the plaintiff will, unless the applicable rules of procedure do not so require, file a reply that specifically admits or denies each new allegation in the defendant's answer.当被告的答复后，原告，除非适用的议事规则并不需要，文件的答复，具体承认或否认每一个被告的回答新的指控。 Thus the allegations of each party are admitted or denied in the pleadings.因此，每一方的指控是承认或否认在诉状。 Allegations of fact claimed by either party and denied by the other become the issues to be decided at the trial.任何一方的要求事实的指控，以及其他成为被剥夺的问题作出决定的审判。

A defendant who files no answer to the complaint is in default, and a court may assume that he has admitted the allegation of the plaintiff and enter a default judgment against him.被告人谁文件没有答案投诉拖欠，而且法院可以推断，他也承认原告的指控，并输入一个对他缺席判决。

Instead of admitting or denying the allegations of the complaint, the defendant may choose to challenge the complaint by a moton to dismiss.而不是承认或否认该宗案件的指控，被告人可以选择一个挑战投诉解雇各项要点。 A motion to dismiss is the defendant's request for the judge to dismiss the case.驳回的动议，是被告对法官的要求驳回此案。 It asserts that even if all the allegations made by the plaintiff in the complaint are true, the plaintiff is not entitled to any legal relief and thus the case should be dismissed.它声称，即使全部由原告作出的投诉属实，原告不享有任何法律救济，因此本案应不予受理。 The motion may challenge the court's jurisdiction over the subject matter or over the person of the defendant, the service of process, or venue.该议案可能挑战在题材或以上的人的被告法院的管辖权，服务的过程中，或地点。 It may also be a motion to dismiss which challenges the legal sufficiency of the complaint.这也可能是一项动议，撤回的挑战，申诉的法律自给自足。 In the letter case, the defendant, for purpose of argument, accepts the facts alleged in the complaint but denies that they are legally sufficient to sustain the claims of plaintiff.在信的情况下，被告，争论的目的，接受申诉中所指称的事实，但否认他们在法律上足够支持原告的索赔。

If the motion to dismiss is denied, the defendant will then be granted time to answer the complaint.如果罢免动议被拒绝，被告将被给予的时间来回答投诉。 If the court allows the motion and dismisses the suit because the complaint is legally insufficient, the plaintiff will be given per mission to file an amended complaint.如果法院允许议案和驳回诉讼，因为法律上是不够的投诉中，原告将获得每团经修改的投诉。