谢天振教授从近年来国内译介围绕翻译研究的一些似是而非的观点, 翻译本体不等于翻译研究本体以及建设独立的翻译学学科三个方面展开了他的讲座，并强调MA的培养重在研究能力的培养， 如果研究能力培养出来，今后无论从事什么类型的工作，缜密思维和分析能力都将使我们与众不同。

    首先，谢教授提出了近年来国内译介围绕翻译研究的一些似是而非的观点。第一，有些学者对近几年来的语言学派，文化学派的译学观点全部予以否定；对此，谢教授分别谈到翻译的语言学派和文化学派的理论偏向，指出虽然语言学派对翻译理论学科有所消解，翻译文化研究使其学术边界模糊，但我们不能全盘的否定这两个学派的译学观点，这使我们明白了做研究不能独尊一家，应该宽容一些并使多家理论相互弥补，这样才是一种健康的研究态度。第二，“翻译还要不要讲求忠实？作为翻译最高境界的‘化境’标准也被视作与‘解构主义理论有异曲同工之处’。人们似乎有理由相信，照此发展势头，传统译介中的某些核心理念也许将日趋近微，并最终淡出。”对于这个观点谢教授以二战为分界点进行了分析---二战前以翻译宗教典籍以及经典文学作品为主，原著高高在上，译者仰视作品并追求完全地忠实；二战后，交往扩大，经济成为主流。商品品牌和经济类的翻译要求译文要吸引消费者，这使得忠实的翻译观发生了很大变化，功能主义翻译观成为了主流。对于这些似是而非的观点，我们作为研究生，尤其是成为一个成熟的研究生的标准是要有学术鉴别能力，对于其他翻译研究者的观点要辨证的看待和鉴别，切忌人云亦云。

    其次，翻译本体不等于翻译研究本体。谢教授指出翻译的本体不是单纯的语言文字转换过程本身，翻译不仅是文学翻译，而是进入了一个新的时代，有很多非文学领域的东西涌入。我们要确立翻译学学科意识，不要被翻译本体迷惑，而要考虑翻译研究的本体，翻译的本体是翻译研究本体的一部分，很多研究者错误的否定了翻译研究的主体性和学科性。所以，我们应该从旧的认识中跳出来，不能停留在原来的角度，要结合时代背景，用正确的方法看待翻译和翻译研究。

   再次，建设独立的翻译学学科。这里谢教授主要谈到三点：一，要把翻译学从外语教学的课堂中解放出来；二，翻译研究的正道是要建设独立的翻译学学科；三，认清翻译理论和是实践的关系。谢教授指出，理论具有朴实性，能解决共通的问题，理论能够指导并帮助我们认识实践。他还指出，现在只有广外和上外真正是在努力建设独立的翻译学学科。

  谢教授的讲座主要围绕三方面内容展开：如何看待国内外对译学研究一些似是而非的观点； 如何正确理解和区分翻译本体和翻译研究本体；如何建设独立的翻译学科。

   首先，谢教授从三个方面阐述了当今译介主要的几个似是而非的观点。第一，语言学派和文化学派进行的翻译研究。谢教授认为语言学派中，结构主义语言学研究翻译，以结构主义语言学理论描述翻译，使翻译研究成为建构语言学框架的工具，没有办法成为一门独立的学科。而现代语言学理论把精力放在对等值，等效的实用性研究，从而消解了翻译研究本身。文化学派的翻译研究则不断扩大翻译研究的外延使其学术边界模糊，也不利于翻译学科建构。第二，翻译研究中对“忠实”的讨论。谢教授认为，之所以会在“是否要忠实”这个问题上争论是因为没有弄清“忠实观”的由来。事实上，翻译标准的变化是按照时间关系随着翻译对象和内容的变化而变化的。从翻译宗教典籍和希腊经典的完全忠实，到二战后由于经济原因而强调译本的功能，可见，“忠实”不会凭空而来也不会悄然而去，其地位的变化是受翻译的具体语境影响的。第三，如何看待中国特色的翻译理论和西方翻译理论的关系。一些学者认为，中国人研究翻译应以中国人的理论为主，西方的理论为辅。并举出一些公示语翻译论文的例子来为自己辩护，但谢教授认为造成这种误解的原因是讨论者本身没有区分清楚翻译的本体和翻译研究的本体。前者指语言文字转换过程的本身，而后者指翻译研究应包含的具体方面，如翻译的行为主体，所处的文化环境等。而过分强调翻译的主体其实质就是否认翻译的主体性，否认翻译学的独立性。

      最后，谢教授提出了建设独立的翻译学科的几点建议：应当把翻译研究从教学课堂中解放出来，分清理论和实践的关系，一方面为培养优秀的译员创造良好的条件，一方面注重理论的建构，和研究型人才的培养。而设立MTI 和MA两类翻译方向的硕士研究生是一个正确的选择。翻译研究的正道是建立独立的翻译学学科。

    没有高深的理论，没有花哨的语言，谢教授高屋建瓴，宏观译学，为翻译研究的初学者理清了思路，指明了方向。就我个人而言，谢教授的讲座解决了我在平时的学习一直迷惑的两个问题：

 第一，   怎样看待翻译理论与翻译实践的关系？

   “理论不一定能指导实践但可以帮助我们认识实践。”这是谢教授给出的精辟回答。其实如果我们冷静下来反思一下，在很多人文科学领域中，理论对实践真的都有很大的指导意义吗？理论研究的本身是在探求一种看待自然世界和人类社会的视角，是人类认识自己过程中的必要努力，所以说，既然选择来高翻读MA的研究生，就注定在这两年与理论结缘，倘若没有办法借翻译理论让翻译实践锦上添花，就让我们透过理论，去发现一个更奇妙的翻译世界吧。

   第二，作为翻译学的硕士研究生，我们的出路在哪里？

    这是一个极为现实和棘手的问题，谢教授的回答令我心悦诚服。诚然，在经过两年的学习，在云云研究生中只会有一小部分的走上继续深造的道路，同译学相伴终身，而对于大多数来说很有可能会从事和翻译理论与实践不是那么相关的工作，然而，两年研究生的学习是对一个人研究能力和学术思维的训练，这些基本素养不只是做学问的必备条件也是以后走上任何工作岗位所必须的品质，所以说，我们应该在明确自己今后发展方向的前提下走好研究生阶段学习的每一步。

转载自http://mti.gdufs.edu.cn/columns/265.htm

I Translate the following passage into Chinese :

       Children learn almost nothing from television, and the more they watch the less they remember. They regard television purely as entertainment, resent programs that demand on them and are surprised that anybody should take the medium seriously. Far from being over-excited by programs, they are mildly bored with the whole thing. These are the main conclusions from a new study of children and television. Cardiac Cullingford confirms that the modern child is a dedicated viewer. The study suggests that there is little point in the later hours. More than a third of the children regularly watch their favorite programs after 9 p.m. All 11-year-olds have watched programs after midnight.

       Apart from the obvious waste of time involved, it seems that all this viewing has little effect. Children don’t pay close attention, says Cullingford, and they can recall few details. They can remember exactly which programs they have seen but they can rarely explain the elements of a particular plot. Recall was in “reverse proportion to the amount they had watched”. It is precisely because television, unlike a teacher, demands so little attention and response that children like it, argues Cullingford. Programs seeking to put over serious messages are strongly disliked. So are people who frequently talk on screen. What children like most, and remember best, are the advertisements. They see them as short programs in their own right and particularly enjoy humorous presentation. But again, they react strongly against high-pressure advertisements that attempt openly to influence them.

       On the other hand, they are not emotionally involved in the programs. If they admire the stars, it is because the actors lead glamorous lives and earn a lot of money, not because of their fictional skills with fast cars and shooting villains. They are perfectly clear about the functions of advertisements; by the age of 12, only one in 10 children believes what even favorite ads say about the product. And says Cullingford, educational television is probably least successful of all in imparting attitudes or information.

II Translate the following passage into Chinese :

       A number of social trends are combining to produce a unique shift in family relationships. The tendency for the father to stay at home to do the housework and look after the children continues while a small but increasing number of two-parent families have a woman as the source of income. This represents a revolution in sex-roles, since until recently the idea of a man doing all the housework was thought of as laughable. What has happened is that men feel less embarrassed about the situation, and that wider society regards it as unsurprising.     This, in part, seems due to the Women’s Liberation Movement, which did not necessarily generate opposition on the part of men. It produced what has been called men’s liberation, in that it has drawn attention to the confining nature of the roles played by some men. After all, if working outside the home means digging holes in frozen roads, doing routine clerical work year after year, or tending partly-built cars on a semi-automatic production line, then it is little wonder that many men would prefer the creativity of home-management.

       Rising unemployment and changing patterns of employment have led to more people losing their jobs. It is often the husband who suddenly finds himself out of work. Then, if both husband and wife are working (a common situation), the wife becomes the only source of income. If she is not working, it might be easier for her to get a job than for the husband to find a new one.

       Graeme Russell, in the Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology, has shown that these changes are certainly good ones. He points out the lack of evidence for the view that women are “better” than men at childcare. And he refers to studies that suggest that children who spend the greatest amount of time with their fathers are among those with the highest performance in school.

III Translate the following passage into Chinese ( 30%):

       The chances are that you made up your mind about smoking a long time ago—and decided it’s not for you. The chances are equally good that you know a lot of smokers—there are, after all, about 60 million of them—work with them, play with them, and get along with them very well. 

       And finally it’s a pretty safe bet that you’re open-minded and interested in all the various issues about smokers and non-smokers—or you wouldn’t be reading this. And those three things make you incredibly important today.

       Because they mean that yours is the voice—not the smoker’s and not the anti-smoker’s—that will determine how much of society’s efforts should go into building walls that separate us and how much into the search for solutions that bring us together.

       For one tragic result of the emphasis on building walls is the diversion of millions of dollars from scientific research on the cause and cures of diseases which, when all is said and done, still strike the non-smoker as well as the smoker. One prominent health organization, to cite but a single instance, now speeds 28 cents of every publicly-contributed dollar on “education” (much of it in anti-smoking propaganda) and only 2 cents on research.

       There will always be some who want to build walls, who want to separate people from people, and up to a point, even these may serve society. The anti-smoking wall-builders have, to give them their due, helped to make us all more keenly aware of choice.

   A common failing [微软用户1] among animal-lovers is the tendency to[微软用户2] regard the animal species in human terms [微软用户3] of intelligence,motivation [微软用户4] and similar matters. The dog, possibly the earliest of the animals domesticated by man, is the extreme example of “humanization” [微软用户5]  being regarded [微软用户6] by a large number of owners in the same light as a human child and endowed by them[微软用户7] with human intelligence and imagination which it cannot possibly possess. Many of the arguments [微软用户8] advanced by anti-hunting factions are based on a similarly false premise—the reactions of the quarry [微软用户9] being related to those of the human in the unlikely eventuality of the latter being placed in the same situation. [微软用户10] 

       The horse may not suffer “humanization”to quite the same degree but without doubt he is popularly, [微软用户11] and quite wrongly, thought to be an animal of high intelligence. The performance of which he is capable[微软用户12] are all too often considered as manifestations of that quality [微软用户13] rather than as products of a training system based on repetition, which results in a variety of conditioned [微软用户14] reflexes. Much of the argument may depend upon the interpretation of the word “intelligence”, but what is certainly beyond doubt is that animal intelligence cannot be equated with the human quality.

       In fact, the brain of the horse is very small in relation to his size, smaller indeed—although the point[微软用户15] is hardly relevant—than that of the turtle. In general terms and at the risk of over-simplification, [微软用户16] it can be said that the horse is a creature of instincts, not of reason, [微软用户17] which is a human attribute, since its mentality [微软用户18] is based upon instincts developed in the wild state as a means of survival against the natural hazards of the environment and the activities of predatory carnivores, foremost of which has been man himself. [微软用户19] 

1

       喜欢动物的人常用描述人的词汇来描述动物，比如聪明伶俐，积极肯干，这样做并不妥当。狗恐怕是最早被人驯养的动物，也是最常被人们赋予“人性”（被当作“人”来看）的动物。许多养狗的人都把狗视作孩子，认为狗和人一样聪明，富有想象力，而事实上狗不可能像人那样聪明，想象力丰富。与之类似，[微软用户20] 有些人反对狩猎，因为他们认为：动物被捕获时的反应与人被捕获（捕猎）时的反应是一样的，这样的说法也站不住脚，因为人被捕获的可能性其实很小。

       虽然马不像狗那样被如此“人性化”， 但毋庸置疑，许多人都错误地认为马是一种高智商的动物。他们认为，马术表演足以说明马的智商高，其实不然。马能做的一切，都是反复训练的结果，是反复训练导致的条件反射。而这些人认为马智力超群，可能主要还是基于他们对“智力”一词的理解，但无论如何，马的智力都无法与人的智力相提并论。

  尽管大脑的尺寸与智商高低并无关联，但必须看到：就大脑与身体的比例而言，马的大脑很小，比海龟的还小。总体而言——这么说可能有将事情简单化之嫌——马是本能动物，而不是理性动物（理性是人类的特征），因为马的智力是建立在其本能之上的，而其本能又是在野生状态下形成的；这些本能使其能应对自然环境中的险情，躲避其天敌的追捕，而人类正是其天敌之首。

Passage 2

       Across platform, beyond devices and around the world, the next evolution of the e-business marketplace revolution is taking shape. Already, the IT landscape is changing—from static computing to mobile and ubiquitous access, and from limited user relevance to truly personalized information. The reason for this new world of user[微软用户21] interaction is simple: opportunity.

       For e-commerce, the benefits of wireless access are especially compelling. By providing a new level of convenience, selling through wireless e-business systems will allow companies to take advantage of buyer impulses. For business-to-business transactions, real-time data access means employees on the road have information they need to make decisions, initiate orders and close deals without waiting to get back to the office.

Wireless e-business and you— a key new tool for your customer relationships [微软用户22] 

      Wireless e-business means a new way to interact with your customers by providing a new way for them to interact with you. While integrated e-business platforms that have been extended to wireless devices provide a convenient new way for customers to make purchases, they provide a whole new way for you to build relationships.

      Now you can identify, acquire, and retain your most valuable customers directly, through targeted messages and offerings to them, wherever they are. And by delivering your programs over wireless technologies, you can increase the effectiveness of your overall e-business investment. So your customers get better, more personalized service, and you maximize profitability. When time-to-market [微软用户23] is critical, wireless e-business systems break down the barriers between you and your customers. Access to new products and services is pervasive. For business users, knowledge sharing is seamless. When you increase the efficiency of your market channels, the result is a sustainable competitive advantage. Your business not only works faster, it works smarter.

       跨越平台、不限设备、全球共享——电子商务活动革命的进一步发展趋势已见雏形，信息技术全景正在发生变化-------从单一静态式地使用计算机到到移动式随处接入, 从有限的用户关联到真正提供个性化信息。如今电子商务用户能实现新型互动，原因很简单：信息技术为他们提供了机遇。

       在电子商务活动中，无线接口的优势最为明显。由于无线电子商务系统更加便捷，所以卖家就可能在买方因购物冲动下了订单时马上敲定生意。而当两个企业在洽谈生意时，实时数据接入意味着：即使员工不在办公室，也能获取决策所需的信息，并据此下订单及完成交易。

Wireless e-business and you—a key new tool for your customer

1 无线电子商务——您的客户您做主（吴真真）

2 电子商务你我他，联络朋友非靠它 ；3 无线商务通，通遍天下情（孙建龙）

       有了无线电子商务，顾客就能以一种全新的方式实现与商家的互动，而商家也因此获得了与顾客互动的全新方式。无线综合电子平台在为顾客提供新型而便捷的购物方式的同时，更为商家建立良好的客户关系开辟了新的渠道。

       无论顾客身在何处，商家都可以通过特定的信息及商品，直接识别、获得并维护重要客户。利用无线技术发布销售计划，有助于提高电子商务投资的总体效率。也就是说，在顾客获得更好的，更个性化的服务同时，商家的收益也实现了最大化。按市场需求来制定销售计划至关重要，而有了无线电子商务系统，商家能更好地了解市场需求。顾客可以随时随地了解新产品、新服务，各商家也共享信息？。提高各种销售渠道的运作效率，商家即可获得可持续的竞争优势，生意会做得更快、更轻松。

Passage 3 [微软用户24] 

   Long bus rides are like television shows. They[微软用户25] have a beginning, a middle, and an end—with commercials thrown in[微软用户26] every three or four minutes. The commercials are unavoidable. They happen whether you want them or not. Every couple of minutes a billboard glides by outside the bus window. “Buy Super Clean Toothpaste.”“Drink Good’n Wet Root Beer.”“Fill up with Pacific Gas.”Only if you sleep, which is equal to turning the television set off, are you spared the unending cry of “You Need It! Buy It Now!” The beginning of the ride is comfortable and somewhat exciting, even if you’ve traveled that way before. Usually some things have changed—new houses, new building, sometimes even a new road. The bus driver has a style of driving and it’s fun to try to figure it out the first hour or so. If the driver is particularly reckless or daring, the ride can be as thrilling as a suspense story. Will the driver pass the truck in time? Will the driver move into the right or the left-hand lane? After a while, of course, the excitement dies down. Sleeping for a while helps pass the middle hours of the ride. Food always makes bus rides more interesting. But you’ve got to be careful of what kind of food you eat. Too much salty food can make you very thirsty between stops. The end of the ride is somewhat like the beginning. You know it will soon be over and there’s a kind of expectation and excitement in that. The seat, of course, has become harder as the hours have passed. By now you’ve sat with your legs crossed, with your hands in your lap, with your hands on the arm rests—even with your hands crossed behind your head. The end comes just at the right time. There are just no more ways to sit.

3

       坐长途公共汽车就像看电视节目——有开头、有中间、有最后，还有每隔三四分钟就闪出的商业广告。不管你想不想看，肯定会有广告闯入眼帘。事实上，每隔几分钟，车窗外就会闪过一幅广告牌,诸如“买超洁牙膏，享自然清新” 、“饮格威特露啤酒，爽心沁脾” 、“用太平洋燃气，实惠又稳定”。（孙建龙：广告词翻译应简洁，易记，且具文采为宜）/ 诸如“超洁牙膏，你的选择！”、“韦特鲁特啤酒，爽透心底！”及“要充就充太平洋天燃气”（孙义强）。除非是睡着了（就好像电视关了），否则任谁也躲不开一路上 “心动不如行动”的叫卖声。就算不是第一次坐这趟车，行程之初乘客往往感觉良好，还有那么一丁点激动，因为窗外的景物会不同——这儿建起了新房子、那儿冒出了新建筑，甚至走的路也可能变了。各个司机开车的风格不一样，所以在上车后头一个小时左右，观察一下这个司机会怎么开车倒是很有意思的事。如果司机开得很亡命，那么整个行程就会惊悚刺激，充满悬念：超得过那辆卡车吗？会走左车道还是右车道呢？当然，过不了多久，新鲜刺激的感觉就没了。旅途中段如果能睡睡时间就更好打发，吃点零食旅途就不会那么无聊，只不过“吃什么”却值得注意——如果咸的东西吃多了，难免口干舌燥。旅途最后的情况跟旅途开始时差不多：有点期待，有点兴奋。当然，在车上坐了这么久，屁股是有点受不了了，只好跷起二郎腿，两只手一会儿搁在膝上，一会儿放在座椅扶手上，一会儿又支到后脑勺下。幸好终点到了——再也坐不住了！

1 改变了的北京鸭（不再北京的北京鸭）   2变异的北京鸭     3改进的北京鸭           4 北京鸭的基因改良 5改良后的北京鸭     6改变了的pekin鸭          7变化了的北京鸭      8 （缺）  9变样的北京鸭     10 北京鸭变了

Professor Jaques Benoit’s announcement to the French Academy of Sciences that he has succeeded in changing the appearance of ducks by injecting them with an extract from the sex cells of another breed has greatly stimulated the imagination of the Paris press [微软用户1] . Newspapers have swiftly suggested that man will soon be able to modify himself at will, that short people could become tall and idiots geniuses.

1   杰奎斯*班诺特教授对法国科学院声称，通过往鸭子身上注射来自其他品种生殖细胞的提取物，他成功的改变了鸭子的外观。这在法国媒界引起不小震动。随即各种猜想开始见诸报端，认为在不久的将来人们就能随心所欲的改变自己：矮小者的可以变得高大，愚笨者可以变得聪明。

2 Jaques Benoit教授向法国科学院宣布他已成功改变了鸭子的外观。具体方法是提取另一品种鸭子的生殖细胞，并把提取的生殖细胞注入到鸭子体内。此结果一宣布即刻引起法国媒体的极大关注，他们认为人类通过这种方法很快也可以任意改变自己，即矮子变高个儿，傻子变天才。

3   Jaques Benoit 教授曾向法国科学院提交了一份报告，声称他已通过从一种鸭子的生殖细胞中获得提取液，将其注入另一种鸭子体内，从而成功的改变了这些被注入提取液鸭子的外观。这一事件已经极大激起了法国出版社的设想。一时间，各大报纸上充斥着人类不久就可以随心所欲地完善自身的言论，矮子成为高个，白痴变智者指日可待。

4 教授jaques Benoit向法国科学院宣告，从不同品种鸭子体内抽取生殖细胞提取液，并将其注射到作为实验对象的鸭子身上，从而成功地改变了它们的体貌特征。这条新闻大大激发了巴黎纸媒的报道想象力，与此同时，各大报纸纷纷传播这样一条消息：人类在不久的将来就能随心所欲地改变自己的遗传基因，让矮小变高大，笨人变聪明。

5 杰奎斯.贝努瓦教授向法国科学院宣布：通过向鸭子注射另一种鸭子生殖细胞的提取物，他已成功改变了鸭子的原来外貌。这大大激起了法国媒体的兴趣。各种报刊随即向读者暗示人类在不久的将来就能够任意改变自己，个子矮的人可以变高，白痴可以变为天才。

6 Jaques Benoit 教授在给法国科学院的通告中指出，通过给一种鸭子注射另一品种鸭子的性细胞提取物能够成功地改变鸭子的外观。这个声明引起了法国新闻界的极大兴趣。由此新闻界大胆的推测在不久的将来人类也能够任意的改变自己，矮个子的人可能长高，愚笨的人可以变聪明。

7   将提取的性细胞注射到另一种鸭体内的方法，成功地改变了鸭的外形。目前贾克斯教授已经将此项科研成果给法国科学院做了通告（汇报）。此消息一经报道，巴黎新闻界一片哗然（此消息一经公布，极大地刺激了巴黎新闻界的想象力）。新闻媒体迅速表态：人类很快就能随意地改变自己；矮子能变高，白痴能变成天才。

8 Jaques Benoit教授在向法国科学院提交的一份报告中宣称，通过向特定鸭子注射其他品种鸭子的生殖细胞提取物他成功地改变了该种鸭子的外形。这分报告极大地刺激了巴黎新闻界的想象力。“人类很快就能根据自己的意愿来改变自己外形”，“长得矮的人可以变得高，笨拙的人可以变得聪明”，诸如此类的报告很快充斥了报纸。

9   贾克斯·班诺特教授向法国科学院宣布，他已经成功地通过向鸭子注射另一品种的生殖细胞提取物改变了它们的外表，这一消息激起了巴黎新闻界的想象力。各大报纸很快便报道，人类不久将能够随意改变自己，矮人可以变高，傻子可以变成天才。

10      Jaques Benoit教授在向法国科学院提交的一份报告中宣称，他通过向鸭子体内注射一种从另外一个生物品种的性细胞中提取出来的提取物这种方式，已经能够成功的改变鸭子的外观特征，这一消息的发布大大震撼了巴黎出版社。 随后，出版社们纷纷发表文章称人类将很快能够随意的改变自己，矮个的可以变成高个的，即使是愚笨的人也可以变成天才。

But sensationalism aside, Professor Benoit and his three assistants appear to have performed a quite remarkable experiment. They extracted DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) from the nuclei of the genital organs of “khaki” ducks and injected it into “pekin” ones. The first injections were made on June 28 last year. The patients were nine female pekins and three male pekins.

1   然而并非为了哗众取宠，杰奎斯*班诺特教授和他三个助手做的这个实验本身确实非常引人注目。[微软用户2] 他们从卡基鸭生殖器的细胞核中提取DNA（脱氧核糖核酸），然后注入北京鸭身上。第一次实验是在去年6月28日，共用了9只雌性北京鸭和3只雄性卡基鸭。

2 Jaques Benoit教授认为实验的目的并不是为了引起社会轰动，他和三名助手只是进行一次突破性尝试。此实验主要是从卡基鸭身上提取生殖细胞DNA，把提取的DNA注入到北京鸭体内。第一批注射于去年6月28日完成，注射的对象是9只母鸭和3只公鸭。

3   尽管报告骇人听闻，但Benoit教授及其三个助手已经实施的实验却具有非凡的意义。他们从“卡其鸭”生殖器的细胞核中提取DNA（脱氧核糖核酸），并将其注入“北京鸭”体中。去年6月28日，该实验首次在对12只北京鸭（其中九雌三雄）进行注射尝试。

4   但撇开这种轰动效应不说，教授和他的三位助手看起来好像已经开展一项非凡的试验。他们抽取土黄鸭子生殖器细胞核中的脱氧核糖酸，然后再注射到北京养殖的鸭子体内。去年六月二十八日就开始挑选了九只母鸭和三只公鸭进行实验注射。

5   杰奎斯.贝努瓦教授和他的三名助手做了一项非同寻常的实验，并因此引起了轰动。他们从黄褐鸭的生殖器官的细胞核中提取了DNA（脱氧核糖核酸），并将它注射给北京鸭。去年6月28号注射了第一批北京鸭（九只母鸭，三只公鸭）。

6   但是抛开外界的那些传言不谈，Benoit 教授和他的三个助手似乎的确进行了一项令人瞩目的实验。他们从“khaki”鸭子生殖器细胞的细胞核中提取DNA（脱氧核糖核酸），并把它注射到“pekin”鸭子的体内。他们在去年的六月二十八日进行了第一次注射，被注射的对象是九只雌性pekin鸭和三只雄性pekin鸭。

7   但贾克斯教授和三个助理撇开了新闻媒体的哗众取宠，在静心研究中他们似乎已经完成了一个卓越的实验。他们先是从卡其布鸭的生殖器官上提取胞核，然后将其注射到北京鸭身上。首次注射日期是去年7月28日，实验对象是9只公鸭和3只母鸭。

8   撇开这些煽情性报告不说，Benoit教授和他的三个助手还是做了一个非凡的实验。他们从Khaki鸭性器官的细胞核中提取DNA并植注入北京鸭体内。在去年六月28号那天，他们才首次实验。这次实验共选取了九只母北京鸭和三只公北京鸭。

9   但是撇开炒作，班诺特教授和他的三个助手似乎完成了一个不同寻常的实验。他们把从“卡其”鸭生殖细胞核中提取出的DNA（脱氧核糖核酸）注射到了“北京”鸭身上。首次注射于去年6月28日完成。注射对象是9只母鸭和3只公鸭。

10 暂且撇开那些太过煽动性的报道不说，Benoit教授以及他的三个助手的确做了一个意义相当重大的实验。他们从“卡其”鸭生殖器官的细胞核中提取DNA然后再将其注射到“北京”鸭的体内。第一次这样的注射实验是在去年6月28号进行的，实验对象是12只北京鸭，其中有9只母鸭，3只公鸭。

The first changes in the birds began to appear last October. By mid-November they were so marked that the ducks had every appearance of being a new breed, with smooth white feathers and red or yellow bills with greenish dots. Normally pekins have yellow beaks; khakis have greenish-black ones. The modified birds were small and light (4 Ibs against 8 Ibs for pekins and 5 Ibs for khakis); the feathers and carriage [微软用户3] of the ducks were considerably changed and the treated birds appeared to be tamer.

1   去年10月的时候这些鸭子开始出现了一些变化，到了11月中旬，变化更加惊人，以至于它们看上去就像一个新品种：羽毛洁白光滑，嘴壳或红或黄，上面夹杂绿色的斑点，而普通的北京鸭嘴壳应该为黄色，卡其鸭则为绿黑色。这种改良品种体型较为小巧（平均4ib,而北京鸭和卡其鸭平均分别为8Ib和5ib），毛色个头变化很大[微软用户4] ，且习性较为温顺。

2 注射后，12只北京鸭于去年10月身体发生了变化。到了11月中旬，变化更为显著：羽毛柔滑洁白，嘴呈橘红色并带有绿色斑点。显然已经变成了另外一个品种。而在正常情况下，北京鸭嘴呈黄色，卡基鸭嘴呈暗绿色。经改良的鸭子特征如下：小而轻（北京鸭约4-8磅，卡基鸭约5磅）; 羽毛和体格变化较大；性情更温顺。

3   去年10月，这些鸭子开始发生变化，直到11月中旬，他们作为一个新品种的特征得以全面体现：白净光滑的羽毛及带有绿色圆点的红喙或黄喙。而通常情况下，北京鸭的喙是黄色的；卡其鸭的则是墨绿色的。改进后的鸭子体积小重量轻（原来八磅重的北京鸭及五磅的卡其鸭都减到了四磅）；除此之外，羽毛和走路姿势也和原来颇有不同，就连性情也变得温和了。

4   实验注射后的变化于去年十月开始显现，到去年十一月中旬，这些作为实验对象的鸭子们拥有了崭新的摸样：雪白光滑的羽毛，或红或黄的扁嘴上点缀着绿色的斑点。通常情况下，北京产殖的鸭子嘴巴都是黄色的，土黄鸭子的嘴巴都是墨绿色的。基因改良后的鸭子们身型娇小轻盈，羽翼布满色泽(北京鸭和土黄鸭改良后的体重分别从原来的8磅和5磅都降到了4磅)。举止形态都有了显著的变化，性情也变得温和起来。

5   去年10月份，这批北京鸭开始出现了第一次变化。到11月中旬，变化已经非常明显，完全带有了新品种的外貌特征，羽毛雪白光滑，嘴呈红色或黄色并带有淡绿色斑点。通常情况下，北京鸭的嘴呈黄色，黄褐鸭的嘴呈墨绿色。改良后的鸭子体型较小、体重较轻（重量为北京鸭的八分之四磅，黄褐鸭的五分之四磅）；羽毛和姿态发生巨大变化，并且性情似乎比较温顺。

6   在去年的十月份，这些鸭子有了初次改变。到11月中旬的时候，所有的鸭子都发生了显著的变化，它们的外观（光滑洁白的羽毛，带有绿色斑点的红色或者黄色的鸭嘴）都显示这是一个新品种。因为正常情况下pekin鸭的鸭嘴是黄色的，khaki鸭的鸭嘴是墨绿色的。这些发生改变的鸭子都很小而且很轻（大概只有4磅，而pekin鸭有8磅，khaki鸭有5磅）。它们的羽毛和行为也都发生了极大的改变，而且变得非常温顺。

7   去年10月，鸭体开始发生变化。到了12月中旬这些鸭明显呈现新品种外形特征：羽毛呈白色，光滑；鸭嘴红黄相间，并带有淡绿色的小圆点。一般情况下，北京鸭嘴呈黄色，卡其布鸭嘴呈黑绿颜色。变异后的鸭体小而轻（4磅北京鸭与8磅北京鸭和5磅卡布其鸭形成对比）；鸭的羽毛和体态发生极大变化，实验过后的鸭显得更温顺。

8   在去年的十月，这些鸭子身上首次出现了变化。到十一月中旬时，这些变化已变得非常明显。此时，这些鸭子已经长成新品种了（已经长得不像它们应有的样子了），他们长有光滑而洁白的羽毛，或红或黄的喙上还带有浅绿色的小点。通常情况下，北京鸭长有黄色的喙；khaki鸭长有浅绿而泛黑的喙。这些改造后的鸭子变得又小又轻；他们的羽毛和仪态都发生了很大变化，而且也变得温驯了

 9 这些鸭子在去年十月首次出现变化。到十一月中旬，变化已经很明显，它们已经具有一个新品种的每个表征：光滑洁白的羽毛，红色或黄色的嘴上有绿色斑点。正常情况下北京鸭的嘴是黄色的；而卡其鸭的嘴是墨绿色的。改良后的鸭子体型变小，体重变轻（只有4磅，而北京鸭为8磅，卡其鸭为5磅）；这些鸭子的羽毛和姿态变化很大，并且看起来要温顺很多。

10 从实验看来，这些鸭子第一次产生变化是在去年10月份的时候。直到11月中旬，这些变化更为显著了，它们身上的任何一个特征都表明它们已然演变成了一个新的品种，它们有着光滑洁白的羽毛，或红或黄的喙上还有绿色的小斑点（通常情况下，北京鸭的喙是黄色的，

卡其鸭的喙是墨绿色的）。这些改变了的鸭子体型小体重轻（北京鸭从以前的8磅变成4磅，卡其鸭也变成了5磅）;它们的羽毛和仪态也发生了相当大的变化，并且也变得温顺了。

It has long been known that DNA is associated with the chromosomes which carry hereditary characteristics from one generation to the next. Some people go so far as to suggest that the genes (small parts of the chromosome directly concerned in the process of inheritance) are made of DNA. It is tempting [微软用户5]  to interpret these experiments very simply: part of the injected DNA may find its way into the nuclei of cells which subsequently undergo division. In other words, the khaki genes usurp the places of pekin genes in the pekin duck cells.

1   很早人们就已经证实 [微软用户6] 了遗传特性是通过染色体得以代代相传，而DNA又跟染色体密切相关。有些人甚至认为基因（染色体构成部分——与遗传过程密切相关）就是由DNA组成，并简单的认为这个实验的原理就是部分从卡基鸭身上提取出来的DNA注入北京鸭体内后，在北京鸭细胞分裂时，进入北京鸭的细胞核内。也就是说，这些来自卡其鸭身上的基因篡代了北京鸭细胞中的基因。

2 人们知道DNA与染色体有关，而染色体具有遗传特征。一些专家就此认为基因(遗传过程中染色体的组成部分)是由DNA构成的。 因此，对相关实验的简单解释就是：经注射的DNA进入到细胞核, 而细胞核随之产生分裂。换言之，卡基鸭的基因取代了北京鸭细胞内的基因。以上这种解释引起了人们的关注。

3   人们早就知道DNA与同源染色体有关，而这些同源染色体又携带着遗传特性代代传承。至今为止，一些人坚持认为基因由DNA构成（一小部分同源染色体直接参与到遗传的过程中）。用这来解释这些实验就简单多了：部分注射的DNA进入细胞核，使这些细胞核随后分裂形成新的细胞核。也就是说，通过此类注射，卡其鸭的基因进入北京鸭的细胞从而取代了北京鸭的基因。

4   大家熟知，染色体是脱氧核糖核酸的主要载体，遗传基因是通过染色体来传给下一代。部分人甚至从这一理论（一条染色体中的小部分脱氧核糖酸直接影响后代遗传）中得出结论，基因就是由脱氧核糖酸组成的。对于实验的发生过程，简而言之：脱氧核糖酸被注射后，有一部分可能会找到通往细胞核的途径，细胞核在脱氧核糖酸的作用下会进行分裂，换句话来说，实验结果就是土黄鸭的基因在北京鸭的体内取代了北京鸭的基因。

5   人们早已知道DNA与将遗传特征逐代传承的染色体有一定关系。有些人甚至认为基因（染色体对遗传过程有直接关系的少量物质）是由DNA组成的。简单说明一下这些实验：将DNA注入机体，部分DNA进入细胞核，随后细胞核发生分裂。换句话说，在北京鸭的细胞中，黄褐鸭的基因篡夺了北京鸭的基因地位。

6   众所周知，DNA是与染色体相联系的，而染色体上带有能够代代相传的遗传特性。有人甚至认为基因（染色体的小的组成部分，直接关系着遗传过程）是由DNA组成的。根据这样的想法，人们可以这样简单地解释这个实验，而这个解释也好像很有说服力——就是那些被注射的DNA中，有一部分进入到随后会进行分裂的细胞的细胞核中。换句话说，就是khaki鸭的基因占据了pekin鸭细胞中原有的基因的位置。

7   长期以来，人们都知道DNA和携带遗传基因的染色体有关。一些人甚至认为：基因是有DNA组成的（小部分的染色体直接和遗传过程相关）。简单理解（解释）这个实验很吸引人：注射部分DNA，使其自行进入细胞核，随后这些细胞核经历分裂过程。换句话说：卡布其鸭基因在北京鸭细胞内侵占了其基因空间。

8   我们早已知道，DNA是与染色体联系在一起的，而染色体携带的遗传特征一代传一代。有人甚至认为基因（染色体的一小部分，它直接参与遗传）是由DNA组成。由此，人们就容易很简单化地去理解这个实验：注入北京鸭体内的部分DNA可能和北京鸭的细胞核结合了，而随后这些细胞核就会发生细胞分裂。换句话说，KHAKI鸭的基因取代了北京鸭的基因。

9   众所周知，DNA与染色体有关。染色体携带着传递到下一代的遗传特征。有人竟然提出基因（与遗传过程相关的染色体组成部分）是由DNA构成的。很容易把这些实验简单理解为：一部分注射的DNA成功进入了细胞核，随后发生了分化。换言之，卡其基因在北京鸭的细胞里抢占了北京基因的位置。

10 众所周知，DNA与染色体有关，而染色体携带能够代代相传的遗传性基因。一些人甚至于认为基因（染色体的一段序列直接参与生物遗传）是由DNA组成的。那么根据这个观点就可以很简单的解释这个实验，而且貌似很有说服力：一部分新注入的DNA可能进入了细胞核随后这个细胞核进行分裂。换句话说就是，卡其鸭的基因取代了北京鸭细胞中其原有基因所在的位置。

But this simple explanation does not fit in too well[微软用户7]  with the habits of DNA—for example, with its extremely low rate of replacement in the nuclei. The interesting thing will be to learn whether the offspring of the modified “snowy white” ducks retain the acquired characteristics of their parents[微软用户8] . If professor Benoit should find that the change is carried on into another generation, then this would be the first example of a transformation of one type of animal into another by a sub-cellular extract.

1   然而，这种简单的解释也未免有点牵强，因为自然情况下基因在细胞核中的替换率极低。人们更为感兴趣的是，这种改造出来的“雪白鸭”所表现出的种种特性是否具有遗传性。如果班诺特教授的实验能够证明这种特性具有遗传性，那么这将是第一例实验证明通过亚细胞提取实验可以将一种物种变成另一种物种。

2   但是这一解释并不完全符合DNA的特性, 即 [微软用户9] DNA在细胞核内的替代率很低。因此，这些雪白的经注射的北京鸭的后代不知是否还会保留未经注射的北京鸭的特征。探讨这一问题将会引起人们的兴趣。Benoit教授要是还能验证鸭子这种变化在下一代身上也会出现，那么这就是动物遗传的第一个例子，即通过提取亚细胞实现遗传。

3   可是此类简单的阐释并不完全符合DNA的特点。譬如，细胞核的取代率极其低。目前科学家着手一项有趣的实验，他们试图验证改进了的“雪白鸭”能否能够从父母那里继承已有的特性。如果Benoit教授在某一后代中发现了这一变化，那么这将是通过提取子细胞，物种从一类转化为另一类的首个案例。

4   可是这种解释把脱氧核糖酸的生存习性简单化了，比如如何说明“细胞核中虽然含有能够支持基因改良的他物种脱氧核糖酸，但是新基因替代率极低”这个问题。有趣的是，基因改良后浑身如雪的鸭子们，在繁衍后代时，是否还能让后代的基因保持上一代的特征，还有待观察。如果教授的实验能够为这一疑问找到肯定的答复，那么亚酶蛋白就是成功促进物种改良的首例。

5 但这种简单的解释还不能很好说明DNA各种习性——比如细胞核中基因的低替换率。有趣的是需要了解雪白色的北京鸭经过改良后，其后代是否能够继续保留父类的特征。如果贝努瓦教授在新一代北京鸭中发现变化的话，这将是用亚细胞提取物改变另一种动物的首例。

6   但是这个简单的解释并不完全符合DNA的习性，比如说细胞核中DNA极低的更新率。所以更令人关注的事情就是这些被改变的“雪白的”鸭子的后代是否能遗传到其父母的特性。如果Benoit教授发现这些改变能够遗传给后代，那么这就会是一种动物通过辅助细胞提取物变成另一品种的第一个实例。

7   但这种简单的解释与DNA的习性并不能很好吻合。比如说：胞核内的物质过低替代率。改造过后的“白雪”鸭后代能否保持其父母遗传特性，将会很有意思。如果贝努瓦教授将来能发现变异能代际相传的话，，那么通过亚细胞汁的变异将会成为动物类型转化的首例。

8   但这种简单的理解（解释）与基因的特性（习性）不符—DNA在细胞核内极不容易被取代, 这只是（随便）举一个例子。这些“像雪一样白的”鸭子的后代是否会继承它们的这些特征，这才是值得关注的问题。如果Benoit教授真的发现这些特征遗传给了下一代，那就可以说人类首次在亚细胞提取物的层面上把一种动物改造成了另一种动物。

.9  但是这一简单的解释并不符合DNA的特点—比如说，它在细胞核的替代率很低。值得期待的是改良的“雪白”鸭的后代是否会具有它们母体的特征。如果班诺特教授发现变化传到下一代的话，那这将是第一例通过亚细胞提取物把一个动物品种转变成另一个品种。

10 然而，这个简单的解释并不十分符合DNA自身的特点——比如，细胞核中就很难有这种替代现象的出现。即便是有，那么变化的“雪白色”鸭子的后代是否能够保留上一代的遗传特征这也是个值得人们深思的问题。如果Benoit教授能够证明那些已改变品种的特征能够遗传给下一代，那么这将是首个案例，即通过提取亚细胞将一种动物转变成另外一种动物。

That transformations of this type could be achieved in microorganisms has long been known, and in fact stems back from a discovery made by Griffith in this country[微软用户10] . He found that it was possible to transform a harmless type of Pneumococcus into a virulent one which will kill mice by adding killed virulent bacteria to live harmless ones. [微软用户11] Subsequent work at the Rockefeller Institute in New York showed that the principle [微软用户12]  by which this change in character is transferred is the DNA of the virulent bacteria, and the transformation can be brought about by adding this DNA to the harmless type.

1   很早人们就已经知道在微生物中也可以出现这种转变，第一个发现这种转变的人叫格里菲斯，也是个法国人。他发现在无害型肺炎球菌中加入已死亡的有害型细菌后，可以导致这些无害细菌转变成有害的，足以让老鼠致命的细菌。随后，在纽约洛克菲勒大学进行的进一步实验表明，导致产生这种转变的根源是这些有害细菌的DNA。只要在无害型细菌中加入这种DNA就可以引发这种转变。

2   人们很早就知道，这种遗传在微生物身上也可以实现。在法国， [微软用户13] Griffith教授就已经发现这一结果。他认为把一种无毒的肺炎球菌注入到有毒的肺炎球菌中，这样就可以杀死老鼠。其结果就等于把有毒的病菌添加到无毒的病菌中。随后在纽约洛克菲勒研究所也做过这种实验，其结果表明病菌特征的改变就是由有毒病菌DNA引起的, 即把有毒病菌DNA添加到无毒病菌中，从而实现遗传。

3   人们深知此类转化能够在微生物界得以转化，事实上这要追溯到Griffith在该国的一项发现。Griffith发现如果在存活的无害菌里加入致命病菌，就是对原来人类无害的肺炎球菌也足以令小白鼠致命。纽约洛克菲勒研究所的后续研究表明这一原理是带有病毒的DNA发生了特征变化，并且这一转化是通过把病毒DNA加到无害DNA中得以实现的。

4   在微生物物种的基因改良中，这种转换方法也适用，这一观点并不新鲜，因为最早可以追溯到法国的“格里菲斯的发现” ：把肺炎球菌从良性转化成恶性是有可能的，把毒性肺炎球菌移植到良性肺炎球菌体内进行培育，就足以让鼠类毙命。在纽约洛克菲勒学院所做的后续实验证明了一条法则：良性病菌转化为毒性病菌是由于毒性病菌脱氧核糖酸在良性病菌体内进行毒性基因复制，因此只有当良性病菌体内被加入毒性病菌后，才能培植出含有剧毒的病菌。

5   人们早已知道在微生物中可以实现这种转化，这实际上可以追溯到格里菲斯的发现。他曾经发现：有可能将无害肺炎球菌移植给有毒肺炎球菌。随着有毒菌不断吞噬活性无害菌，有毒肺炎球菌足以杀死老鼠。后来，纽约洛克菲勒研究所的研究表明：引起相应变化的根源是有毒菌的DNA，也就是将有毒菌的DNA移植给无害菌引起。

6   很久之前人们就知道这种转变是可以在微生物中发生的，而这个结论是从该国Griffith的一项发现中得出的。Griffith指出把无害的肺炎双球菌变成病毒性的细菌是有可能的。这种改变就是把已死亡的有害的肺炎双球菌加入到原本无害的细菌体内，这样就能产生足以杀死小老鼠的病毒性的细菌。随后在纽约洛克菲勒研究所的研究工作也指出了与此相符的改变的根源就是病毒性细菌的DNA; 通过把病毒性细菌的DNA加入无害的细菌体内就能发生这种改变。

7   在微生物层面，动物类型间的转换早已为人所知，事实上，在法国这种转换可以追溯到格里菲斯的发现上。他发现：通过将具有杀伤力的剧毒细菌加到有生命但无害的微生物体内，将一种无害肺炎球菌转移到另一种能杀死老鼠的剧毒微生物体内的方法是可能的。纽约洛克菲勒研究院的后续研究表明：特性变异被转移的原理在于将DNA注入到无害的微生物体内后，其内部发生的变化能带来致命细菌DNA和微生物的转化（变形）。

8   把一种生物改造成另一种生物可以在微生物层面取得成功，这是广为人知的事实。事实上，这最早是由Griffith所发现的，他同时也是一位法国科学家。他发现人类是有可能把一种无毒的肺炎球菌改造成为一种有毒的。这种有毒的肺炎球菌把已经被杀死的毒性细菌复制到无毒的且具有活性的细菌体内，它通过这种方式来杀死老鼠。他接下来在纽约洛克菲勒研究中心的研究表明，之所以会有这种特质（本质）的改变是由毒性细菌的DNA所引起的，并且这种改造可以通过复制该毒性细菌的DNA到无毒细菌体内来实现。

9   这一类型的转变在微生物界早已成功，这要回溯到本国格里菲斯此前的发现。他发现有可能通过向活的无毒肺炎球菌加入被杀死的毒性细菌，把一种无毒肺炎球菌转变成毒性的，转变后的肺炎球菌能够杀死老鼠。在纽约洛克菲勒研究所进行的后续工作表明，特征变化转移的本质是毒性细菌的DNA，这种转变可以通过向无毒细菌加入毒性DNA来实现。

10 事实上，在很久以前人们就知道在微生物中能够实现生物的转变，而这还得追溯到Griffith在该国的一个发现。他发现可以将一种无害的肺炎球菌转变成一种剧毒的肺炎球菌，并且还能够把这种灭活的剧毒性细菌添加到活性的无害细菌中杀死老鼠。后来，纽约Rockefeller机构发现了这一原理：即性状的改变就在于剧毒性细菌的DNA，并且通过添加剧毒性DNA到无害细菌中能够引发这种转变。

ANTIBIOTIC USE IN ANIMALS AND PLANTS

Each year more than 8 million kilograms (kg) of antibiotics are given to animals and 22,000 kg are applied to fruit trees, representing more than 40%—and perhaps as much as 70%— of the antibiotics manufactured in the United States (Horrigan et al. 2002, Khachatourians 1998). As much as 80%–90% of this total is administered in subtherapeutic doses for growth promotion, improved feed conversion, and disease prevention (EMS 2002, Levy 1998, Lieberman &Wootan 1998; Mellor 2004).

       译文1：每年动物用到的抗生素有八百万多公斤，而果树会用到22000公斤。这些量比每年全美国抗生素购买量的40%还要多（有可能已达到了70%）。而这些抗生素而这些抗生素的80%-90%都是作为增加产量，提高饲料利用率以及疾病控制等预防疾病的剂量。

       译文2：在美国，每年有８００多万公斤抗生素用于动物，2.2万公斤抗生素用于果树，共计占美国年抗生素生产总量的40%以上，甚至可能占到70% (Horrigan et al. 2002, Khachatourians1998)。这些用于动物及果树的抗生素中约有80%～90%是用于预防性目的而非真正用于治疗，比如用来作为促进生长、饲料转化及预防疾病。

       译文3：每年有800多万公斤的抗生素添加到动物饲料中，还有2.2万多公斤用于喷洒果树。每年使用这么多的抗生素80%--90%用于促进动物和果树的生长、提高饲料使用效果及预防疾病的发生。这些抗生素40%--70%是由美国制造的。

In addition to direct exposure (consumption of animal products harboring resistant bacteria), there are a number of other ways for humans to acquire bacteria from animals. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria may be acquired from crops fertilized by or water contaminated by animal waste (EMS 2002), or bacteria may pass from person to person. A recent study found that∼26% of bacterial isolates taken from swine farm workers harbored resistant bacteria. Those farms that used antibioticcontaining food for their pigs had a higher percentage of resistant isolates, a finding that echoes previous studies of poultry farms (Akwar et al. 2007). Although recent data such as these are alarming, meat producers are often unwilling to change practices for fear that the economic impact will be too great. Evidence suggests, however, that modification of procedures to decrease the use of antibiotics can be performed without a loss in production (Thomke & Elwinger 1997).

Direct links may be made between use of particular antibiotics in animals and a corresponding rise in resistance among bacteria that afflict humans.

译文1：用于动物身上的特定的抗生素和折磨人类的细菌中的抵抗性的增加有一定的直接联系的。        译文2：在动物身上使用特殊抗生素或许会直接导致那些影响人类健康的病菌的抗生素耐药性增长。

译文3：人们不断使用含抗生素的饲料喂养动物，而随之而来困扰人类的是动物身上病菌的耐药性也在增强，两者之间有着直接的联系。Fluoroquinolone use in poultry has been tied to fluoroquinolone resistant Campylobacter. The use of the antibiotic avoparcin in food animals and a rise in vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE) have also been linked (Keep Antibiot. Work. 2001, Lieberman & Wootan 1998; Wegener 2005). Even more recently, Chinese farmers have been dosing poultry flocks with the antiviral amantadine, potentially selecting for resistant strains of the H5N1 bird flu virus and rendering amantadine useless against human flu cases (Sipress 2005).

The use of antibiotics on crops is also a salient part of antibiotic resistance. Although only a small percentage of antibiotics produced for agriculture are used on plants, the quantity is still large enough for plant pathogens to have developed streptomycin resistance and for nonpathogenic orchard bacteria to have acquired tetracycline resistance (McManus 1999). The main bacterial pathogen for plants is related to other bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Shigella, all common human pathogens (Lieberman & Wootan 1998). Aspects of this kind of antibiotic application, where antibiotics are applied over physically large areas in ways that may affect both groundwater and fruit supplies, leave the potential danger of this practice open for further investigation (McManus 1999).

   译文1：这种抗生素的应用，也就是用各种方式把抗生素大范围的用于植物身体上，可能会影响到地下水和果实供应量，从而使这种实践给未来的研究带来潜在的危险。

       译文2：在植物养殖中使用抗生素，不仅影响地下水源的水质，还影响水果的质量，抗生素滥用是否还有其他的潜在危害，还待进一步调查。

译文3：这种抗生素大量用于人体，同时也影响了地下水质和水果的供应，抗生素使用的潜在危险有待进一步调查。

THE PESTICIDE RESISTANCE PARALLEL

译文1：与杀虫剂抗药性并行 译文2：农药耐药性和抗生素耐药性 译文3：杀虫剂的抗药性：

In 2001, the Food and Agriculture Organization reported more than 700 pest species were resistant to pesticides. A parallel may be drawn between the way that the presence of an antibiotic and the presence of a pesticide both select for resistance in their target species. Bacteria and insects often acquire resistance in the same way, through a single mutation. In the common fruit fly Drosophila, one gene change allows the fly to overproduce an enzyme that breaks down dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) and other poisons. As seems to be the case in at least some instances of antibiotic resistance, removal of the selective agent (the global decline in the use of DDT in this case) does not necessarily cause the insects to revert back to a susceptible state (Major et al. 2003).

译文1：这些至少都可以被看作是抗生素耐药性产生的实例，即使现在移除这些选择基因（也就是在全球范围内减少杀虫剂的使用量），也并不能使昆虫回到先前的易受感染的状态。

译文2：和某种抗生素耐药性产生的情况相似，在上面这个例子当中，全球减少对DDT的使用也未必能让害虫保持对杀虫剂的敏感。

译文3：针对病菌和昆虫抗药性这种情况，现在全球都在逐渐减少使用DDT而使用其他类型的农药，当然这并不意味着昆虫不会产生抗药性。( Major et al. 2003)

Given that pesticide resistance emerged as a problem earlier than did antibiotic resistance, what can we learn from this experience? Two methods to slow the development of resistance in pests are rotating pesticides and using mixtures of chemicals. These methods (and their parallels in antibiotic cycling and combination therapies) ensure that individuals are not repeatedly exposed to the same pesticide and/or antibiotic. Targeting a specific pest or bacterial species through “spot spraying,” analogous to using narrow-spectrum antibiotics in humans, also limits exposure for other organisms, reducing cross-resistance. Evaluating the results of treatment can also help farmers or doctors to choose a more effective treatment (Gemplers 2008).

       译文1：人类意识到杀虫剂抗药性的产生早于抗生素耐药性的产生，那么我们能得出什么结论呢？那就是有两种方法可以是减缓抗药性的产生，一种是改变杀虫剂的成分，另一种就是使用化学混合物。这些方法（同时还有抗生素循环和组合治疗）确保了个体不会反复接触到同一种杀虫剂或抗生素。就好比用“点射”的方法把一种害虫或细菌作为研究对象一样，在人类身上用窄谱抗生素来“点射”，同时限制其他生物体的出现，减少交叉抵抗力。评估这个实验的结果就能帮助农民或医生得出更有效的治疗方法。

       译文2：假设杀虫剂耐药性出现比抗生素耐药性要早，我们可以从中吸取哪些教训呢？有两种办法可以遏制耐药性问题引发的不良后果：一种是将杀虫剂摇匀喷洒；另一种是将多种杀虫化学试剂混合调制，交替注射抗生素和多种抗生素调配治疗也同此理。这种做法是为了避免害虫对同一杀虫剂产生耐药性，或者病菌对同一抗生素产生耐药性。专效型杀虫剂和窄谱抗生素的使用原理类似。也在减少其它微生菌寄生的同时，降低二次病菌感染发病率。试验结果的评估能够帮助果农或者医生选择一种更有效的方法来解决耐药性问题。

       译文3：鉴于杀虫剂的抗药性比抗生素的抗药性出现的早这种情况，我们如何从中获得经验？有两种办法可以减缓害虫的抗药性，既循环使用杀虫剂和使用化学混合物。这两种方法可以确保各种害虫不会接触同一种杀虫剂，也不会产生抗药性。具体操作是：选定一种害虫或者病菌通过定点喷洒，这种方法类似于在人身上注射窄谱抗菌素。这样就可以限制其他病原体的蔓延，从而减少交叉抗药性。这一方法还可以帮助农民或医生更有效的处理病虫害或治疗病人。(Gemplers 2008)

Two places where an antibiotic/pesticide parallel breaks down are in the areas of behavioral modification and creation of “refugia.” Whereas insects can modify their behavior (for example, to dwell on the underside of leaves where pesticide concentrations may be lower), bacteria are not capable of this kind of behavior modification. Creating “refugia” where antibiotic-susceptible bacteria could live (parallel to not spraying certain sections of fields to encourage development of pesticide susceptible insects) (Gemplers 2008) would be unethical because it would mean denying some patients necessary antibiotics. Instead, limiting antibiotic misuse helps to maximize the number       of susceptible bacteria.

       译文1：两个方法能破坏抗生素或杀虫剂那就是行为改变和建造“避难所”。昆虫就会改变他们自己的行为（比如他们会栖息在树叶的下面，那里的杀虫剂含量会低一点），而细菌则并不可能有这样的行为改变。创造“避难所”即能让易受抗生素感染的细菌生活的地方（相当于对一些地方没有使用杀虫剂从而使易感染杀虫剂的昆虫生长）可能并不符合道德法则，因为它意味着不让那些病人使用必要的抗生素。而限制抗生素的滥用则则可以使易受感染抗生素的细菌的数目增加。

       译文2：害虫可以选择在农药喷洒浓度较低的叶面下存活，但是抗生素敏感品系的病菌却不能如此。就好比农药喷洒不均导致害虫继续繁殖，倘若在病人身上所注射的抗生素药效未能波及残留病菌存活区域，医生又不得不用分例外的抗生素来消灭残留病菌，但同时也意味着剥夺了其他病人们正常使用抗生素的权利，这归咎于医生的失职。在这种情况下，对抗生素的超量使用施行限制政策反而适得其反，抗生素敏感品系病菌不减反增。

       译文3：抗生素和杀虫剂的可抗药性主要是由于昆虫寄居方式和病菌寄居处所的改变。具体说就是昆虫不断改变它们的生存环境，如昆虫会寄居在草叶的下面，而这一地方正是杀虫剂药效较低的地方。而细菌却没有能力改变它们的寄居环境，它们只能寄生于适合细菌的地方。因此，如果不通过定点注射就会导致细菌滋生和蔓延。(Gemplers 2008) 当然抑制细菌就要使用抗生素，如果不用抗生素，恐怕病人也不会同意的。然而，限制滥用抗生素又会导致细菌的蔓延。

POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS

To minimize antibiotic resistance, solutions may be drawn from biological, social, and evolutionary realms, with the most effective plans combining elements from all three. SeeTable 2 for several possible biological solutions.

Combination therapies are a particularly useful biological solution because with this method each drug attacks bacteria in a different way, minimizing resistance (Kaplan 2003). Antibiotic cycling, on the other hand, may not be as promising a solution because the assumed fitness cost to bacteria for becoming antibiotic resistant seems slight, and true cycling requires a return to the original antibiotic agent or class. When that occurs, resistance to that agent usually resurfaces rapidly (Gerding 2000, Hodges & White 2001).

A variety of social solutions may also helpminimize antibiotic resistance (see Table 3).

Educating patients on proper antibiotic use is an important first step. Recent research has linked specific antibiotic overuse to specific rises in resistant bacteria within certain countries (Abramson & Givner 1999, Albrich et al. 2004). Each time an antibiotic is ingested, the likelihood increases that the antibiotic will be less effective in the future not only for the person who took the antibiotic, but for others as well (Laxminarayan & Brown 2001). This reality returns us to the tragedy of the commons. By conceptualizing antibiotics as an always-effective global resource, neither patients nor practitioners think about the effects of their antibiotic misuse on the larger population (Simpson et al. 2007).

译文1：每次当一种抗生素被摄取，下次即使增加了那种抗生素的含量也不会再有作用，这不仅仅是对吃这种抗生素的人来说的，对其他人也是一样的。这个现实就使我们意识到大众的危机。这一把抗生素作为悠久有效的世界资源的概念，导致了不管是病人还是实践者都没有想到在大量人口中滥用抗生素所带来的后果。

译文2：患者每注射一次抗生素，抗生素的药效就会降低一次，这种现象普遍而非个别。这样的现实不禁让人想起哈丁的“公地悲剧”。把抗生素当成放之四海而皆准的药物后，行医者和患者都未曾想过这样的不良后果----由大多数人群对抗生素的误用引发的。

译文3：抗生素每使用一次，它的药效随之会减弱一次。(Laxminarayan & Brown 2001) 这一结果当然会让大众很难过。人们一直认为抗生素是一种有效的药物，但不论是病人还是医生谁会想到滥用抗生素对人类带来的后果呢？(Simpson et al. 2007)

Encouraging consumers to demand more responsible antibiotic use has proven effective in some cases.译文1：在一些情况下，鼓励消费者使用可靠的抗生素这一方法是可靠的。

译文2：“呼吁商家停用对消费者身体有害的抗生素食品添加剂”的正当要求应当受到鼓励，在某些案例中商家不当的经营行为有所收敛。

译文3：实践证明指导鼓励病人合理使用抗生素的做法是有效的。McDonalds Corporation now prohibits their direct suppliers from using“medically important antibiotics” as growth promoters. However, the practice of treating whole flocks or herds for disease when a few animals fall ill is still permitted (UCS 2003). Legislative regulation of antibiotics has generally been less effective, however. In 2005, bills to limit the agricultural use of eight “medically important”antibiotics were introduced in both houses of Congress and referred to committee. In 2007, a modified version of the bill was introduced again, but again stalled in committee. 译文1： 2007年，这个法令再次被修改，但再一次被委员会搁置。译文2：修正法案又在2007年出炉，但仍有待于委员会审核。The FDA has recently been spurred to action by a variety of food contamination cases, however, and has curbed the sale of farm-raised fish from China, citing indiscriminate use of antibiotics, particularly fluoroquinolones, by Chinese farmers (Martin 2007).

Table 2       Biological solutions

Abbreviations: FDC, fixed dose combination.

Finally, two evolutionary solutions may minimize antibiotic resistance (see Table 4).

CONCLUSION: WHAT CAN WE LEARN FROM THE RISING TIDE OF RESISTANCE?

   The evolution of antibiotic resistance is strongly influenced by the economic behavior of individuals   and institutions. The more antibiotics are used (or misused), the greater the selective pressure placed      on bacteria to evolve. The problem, therefore, arises from the absence of economic incentives to take     into account the negative impact of their use of antibiotics on social welfare. (Laxminarayan &    Brown 2001 p. 184)

   译文1：进化过程中人类和生物体系的经济行为对抗生素耐药性产生的影响很大。抗生素用的越多，在细菌身上的自然选择性就越明显。然而，由于缺少经济刺激而引起的问题则被当作是抗生素在社会福利工作应用中所带来的负面影响。

       译文2：个体和组织的不当经济行为和抗生素耐药性有直接的关联。抗生素使用越频繁，越无节制，进一步促使病菌因其敏感度增大而进化成抗体携带。这个问题存在本身，究其社会根源，和经济回报的大小有关。利益有关方认为，从社会公众利益的角度来考虑到消极影响，停止滥用抗生素，却不能带来什么经济利润。

The age of globalization is the age of universal contagion. (Hardt & Negri 2000, p. 136)

Antibiotic resistance teaches us about the complex interactions among microbes, plants, animals, and humans. One key lesson is that overreliance on quick fixes is often shortsighted, leaving us blindsided by new problems. Antibiotic resistance is a wake-up call for those who have adopted a view of health that pays scant attention to the interaction among species in an ever-changing micro- as well as macroenvironment.

译文1：在这个千变万化的宏观或者微观的环境中，有许多人认为健康与物种间的联系很小，而抗生素耐药性的产生则对这些人做了提醒。

译文2：对于那些拥有全新的健康理念，关注瞬息多变的微观环境和宏观环境中生存的物种种群之间的相互联系，相互作用关系的人们来说，抗生素耐药性所带来的危害性让他们对抗生素的正确使用有了更清醒的意识。Evolutionarily, it is clear that natural selection fits organisms to their environments and does not favor one species over another. Given the multitude of factors contributing to antibiotic resistance, complex systems thinking such as that found in political ecology and ecosocial approaches to epidemiology (Krieger 2001) are needed to account for the impact of political economic policy on medicine use.译文1：本文罗列了这么多抗生素耐药性产生的因素，复杂系统认为政治生态学和生态社会学的发现和流行病的联系都会对药物应用的政治经济政策产生影响。 译文2：抗生素耐药性原因复杂，牵涉到政治生态学，经济社会学和流行病学，综上所述，影响了药用物品的采纳与否。Attention must be turned to the set of human factors that affect medication use, especially in the private medical sector encouraged by prevailing neoliberal policies across much of the world.

Table 3 Social solutions

Abbreviations: FDA, Food and Drug Administration; MRSA, multi-drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus; STG: standard treatment guideline.

A second key lesson taught to us by antibiotic resistance is just how rapidly the global can be affected by the local in the realm of microecology (Avorn & Solomon 2000, Martin 2006), a lesson we are also learning from emergent diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and the avian flu. Strains of resistant bacteria that spread rapidly force us to rethink borders and the need for concerted global action in the area of pharmaceutical practice (Fidler 2003). A global sentinel surveillance system is called for to monitor antibiotic sensitivity/specificity as well as drug supply and patterns of use. It is becoming increasingly clear that it is in the best interests of wealthy countries to ensure that less developed countries have access to supplies of essential medicines to treat infectious disease, despite the perception that these diseases are “tropical” and distant from their shores (Nichter 2008).

Table 4 Evolutionary solutions

 The same is true for the use of antibiotics in agriculture. The biology of how animals acquire resistant bacteria and how those bacteria may be transferred from plants and animals to humans is becoming increasingly evident. Yet private industry has been notoriously ineffective at regulating its use of antibiotics except when forced to do so. Consumers play their own roles through their purchasing habits and willingness to acquire foods grown under globally irresponsible conditions. Knowledge and perception are beginning to change, however, in countries where quality of food has become a matter of growing public interest and concern.

译文1：而消费者依然按照他们的购物习惯购买在全球不负责任的条件下产出的食品。人们的知识和观念已经开始改变，然而许多国家的食品质量问题已成为一个公众日益关注的重要问题。    

译文2：另一方面，全球消费者也不可推卸的责任：不良的消费习惯---不注重饮食卫生纵容了不法食品商贩。人们对于饮食卫生的认知和观念正在发生变化，然而在某些国家，食品质量日渐成了公众关注的焦点。

A final question remains: “Is the oftendiscussed tragedy of the commons a good metaphor for understanding antibiotic resistance?” Our answer is yes and no. Antibiotics are not a “global public good” because they are privately developed, manufactured, sold, and managed according to the profit motives of pharmaceutical companies. These companies also influence prescribing habits of doctors and government policies. Despite this reservation, however, the tragedy of the commons metaphor brings needed attention to the issue of resistance and encourages patients and practitioners to think beyond their own personal benefit from using (or misusing) antibiotics.

The key to human resilience lies in the unique ability to collect information about microorganisms in an ever-changing environment and the capability to engage in the judicious use and monitoring of antibiotics. 译文1：人类复原力的关键在于在不断变化的环境中收集关于微生物的信息的特殊能力以及合理使用和监控抗生素的能力。

译文2：人类之所以能对“抗生素耐药性”进行旷日持久的斗争，关键能在瞬息万变环境中捕捉微生物的动态讯息，监控抗生素的合理药用。译文3：

Furthermore, we must involve the public in active strategies that enhance global health in ways that make ecological sense. For meaningful change to take place, transnational attention needs to be turned to global trends of medicine use that indirectly but powerfully affect pharmaceutical effectiveness. Global responsibility for health demands changes in government policy as it pertains to allocation of resources. In addition, global policies need to address pharmaceutical industry marketing practices that encourage antibiotic resistance.

The global elements of a successful strategy against antibiotic resistance include consumer and practitioner education, technical development, legal regulation, and international surveillance of antibiotic use (Khachatourians 1998).We also need to address health care disparities by making essential drugs readily available to the poor at an affordable price. These elements require a coordinated international effort, with some central body providing oversight and accountability so as to minimize conflicts in policy agendas (Fidler 2007).

At least two factors will transform the reality of antibiotic resistance from a biological concern into a biopolitical problem. First, our increasing inability to treat widespread diseases such as TB and malaria with a single drug will make it obvious to various stakeholders that a change in how we view antibiotics is overdue. Second, subpolitics (Beck 1996), which entails political engagement outside and beyond the institutions of the political system of nationstates, encourages conscientious consumption and examination of global commodity chains (Hughes & Reimer 2004). This focus helps individuals realize that by putting pressure on multinational corporations, they can affect how food is grown and raised, to the ultimate benefit of all. Some measure of antibiotic resistance is related to poverty and inappropriate drug use. Far more antibiotic resistance, however, is caused by noncompliance of people and corporations in the agricultural and medical fields and by the pricing of products beyond the reach of those people who would use such products effectively. This kind of biopolitical problem also opens up many issues for anthropologists because the global scope of antibiotic resistance forces us to think on many interconnected levels instead of thinking of individuals, states, or global corporations as isolated causes of this phenomenon.

   How can you find out what is going on inside a person’s body—without opening the patient up? Regular X-rays can show a lot. CAT scans can show even more. They can give a three-dimensional view of body organs. [猪猪猫.CN1] 

       What is a CAT scan? CAT stands for Computerized Axial Topography(计算机化X射线轴向分层造影)。 It is a special X-ray machine that obtains a 360-degree picture of a small area of a patient’s body.

       Doctors use X-rays to study and diagnose diseases and injuries within the body. X-rays can locate foreign objects inside the body or take pictures of some internal organs—if special substances as dyes or special liquids are added to the organs to be X-rayed.

       A CAT scanner, however, uses a beam of X-rays to give a cross-sectional(横断面的) view of a specific part of the body. A fine（词义为细的） beam of X-rays is scanned across the body and rotated around the patient from many different angles. [猪猪猫.CN2] A computer analyzes the information from each angle and（表达先后关系）produces a clear cross-sectional image on a screen. This image is then photographed for later use. Several cross-sections, taken one after another, （此处不要单独译句，注意前后逻辑关系）can give clear “photos”of the entire body or of any body organs. The latest CAT scanners can even give clear images of active, moving organs, just as fast-faction camera can “stop the action”, giving clear images of what appears only mistily to the eye. And because of the 360-degree pictures, CAT scans show three-dimensional views of organs in a manner that（灵活拆句翻译）was once only revealed during surgery or autopsy (examining a dead patient).

       Too much exposure to X-rays can cause skin burns, cancer or other damage to the body. Yet CAT scans actually don’t expose the patient to more radiation than conventional X-rays do. （翻译需调整句子结构、注意上下文衔接，主语明确统一。）CAT scans can also be done without injecting dyes into the patients, so they are less risky than regular X-rays procedures.

       CAT scans provide accurate, detailed information. They can detect such a thing as bleeding inside the brain. They’re helping（注意此处现在进行时的翻译，最好不要翻译成“正在”） to save lives.

       如果不打开病人的腹腔，怎样才能知道病人体内的具体情况呢？定期照X光能提供许多信息，但如果进行CAT扫描，则获取的信息会更详尽，因为CAT扫描能立体展示人体器官的状况。

       CAT扫描指的是计算机化X射线轴向分层造影，CAT扫描仪是一种特殊的X光仪器，能拍摄出病人体内狭小区域的立体图片。

       医生利用X光对病情（及体内创伤？）进行分析并作出诊断。只要为相关脏器注射一些特殊的物质，如某些染色剂或特殊的液体，就能通过照X光确定体内异物的位置，或拍下一些脏器的照片。

       而CAT扫描仪则是利用X光束拍摄下身体特定部位的横断面图。X光束极细，能扫描到内脏的情况，并从不同的角度围绕病人身体进行旋转扫描。当电脑对从某角度传来的信息进行分析时，屏幕上随即显示出一张清晰的横断面图像。然后这张图像被拍成照片以备后用。从几个角度扫描就会得到几张横断面图像，而这些图像合在一起，就能清晰展示全身或某些器官的全貌了。就像高像素相机能清晰地拍下肉眼看来模糊的动态物体一样，最新型的CAT扫描仪甚至能清晰地拍下动态器官的图像。有了这些全方位的照片，CAT扫描就能立体地展示人体器官，而以前只有在做外科手术或进行尸体解剖时人们才看得到人体器官的真面目。

       接触X光过多会灼伤皮肤，致癌或对身体带来其他伤害。但相对于照传统的X光而言，病人接受CAT扫描时接触的辐射其实更少。CAT扫描时也不需要将染色剂注射到病人体内，所以CAT扫描比一般的X光照射更安全。     

       CAT扫描能提供精确、详细的病情，能查出诸如颅内出血等问题，有助于挽救病人的生命。

Passage 2  此文翻译中需注意语序安排

       It is official: you are more likely to think other people are attractive if they are looking straight at you and smiling. The finding helps to explain long-standing questions over the subtle ways in which evolution can determine human preferences.

       An important question in biology is whether a particular function or ability is the result of evolution or an accidental byproduct of it. Some biologists believe that human perception falls into this second category because there has been little evidence that how we perceive things like faces affects （主语how we perceive things like faces）our biological success in ways（修饰affects）that are selected for or against.（that 从句修饰in ways）

       But the evidence is mounting that evolution has conditioned（“影响、决定”之意 ） our perception in subtle ways. Claire Conway and colleagues at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland, U.K. paired nearly identical photos of computer-generated faces, with smiling or disgusted （绿色部分，注意对照参考译文）expressions. The pair differed only in where the irises were pointed: straight at the viewer, or off to the side.

       Several hundred Aberdeen undergraduates, in the lab and online, rated the faces for sexual attractiveness, and for likeability, a sexually neutral quality. Both men and women found faces looking straight at them to be more attractive and more likeable, even if the faces looked disgusted though unsurprisingly, there was a greater preference for smiles（蓝色部分补充说明）.

       But when the viewers were rating the faces for attractiveness, the preference for being gazed at directly by smiling eyes was much greater for faces of the opposite sex, especially when they were rated by men. There was no such sexual bias（偏好异性的倾向）in the preference for a direct gaze when the students rated disgusted-looking faces, or when they were rating any faces for likeability.

       The Aberdeen team says（整体句子主干）the sexual bias（主语） in subjects’ perception of sexual attractiveness in a direct, smiling gaze is hard to explain（后文译成“不能将、说”） as（谓语） a functionless byproduct of perception. But it could have 减少了evolved to ease the effort of mating, by directing efforts towards people who are already expressing an interest.

       The idea that evolution played a role in determining our facial preferences is backed up by other work, such as research showing that perceptions of attractiveness change depending on peer pressure同辈压力, or even the time of the month.

       What about cultures, common in Asia（绿色部分作定语修饰cultures）, where gazing directly at someone is rude? “The Asian participants [in the study] demonstrated preferences for direct over averted gaze,” Conway told New Scientist. But these are private preferences, she cautions. “Whether or not such preferences are also expressed in public situations we don’t know.”

       研究表明：如果有人面带微笑，双目直视你，你就很有可能被他吸引。该研究结果可以用来解释一些长期困扰人们的、有关进化是如何悄然改变了人类的喜好的问题。

       某一种功能或能力倒底是进化的直接结果还是其偶然的副产品，这是生物学研究的一个重要问题。一些生物学家认为：人的感知能力应该是进化的副产品，因为并没有证据表明：人感知事物（如脸）的方式会影响人的进化。

       但是，却有越来越多的证据显示：进化以微妙的方式决定了我们的感知能力。英国苏格兰爱伯丁大学的克莱尔·康威及其同事用电脑合成了许多对几乎一模一样的面部照片，每对照片都是一张面带微笑，另一张却面露嫌恶。两张照片其实只有一处不同：前者的双眼直视对方，而后者却没有直视对方。

       爱伯丁大学的几百名本科生在实验室在线参与了对这些电脑合成面孔的评价，评价的项目/指标/内容是性感程度及可爱程度。不管男性还是女性都一致认为：双眼直视他们的那些面孔更性感，更可爱；即使是面露嫌恶的脸，只要双眼直视他们，就会让他们觉得较有吸引力（虽然，毫无疑问，大家会更喜欢笑脸）。

       但是在评价哪些脸更性感时，认为微笑着直视自己的异性面孔看上去更性感的人显然要多得多，男学生尤为明显。而在评价直视自己但却面露嫌恶的脸哪张更性感，或者是在评价某张脸是否可爱时，男女学生都没有明显偏好异性的倾向。

       爱伯丁大学的研究者们认为，不能将受试者觉得直视自己的异性更性感这样的事实解释为只是感知力进化的一个副产品，不能说这种进化没什么作用，因为这样的性别倾向让人们在择偶时更多关注那些已对自己感兴趣的异性，从而减少了择偶的困难。

       还有一些研究也同样认为：进化可以决定人们更喜欢什么样的面部表情。例如，有研究表明：同辈压力，甚至例假，都会影响到人们对“性感”的判断。

       在许多亚洲国家，直视对方往往被认为是不礼貌的。在这样的国家，情况会如何呢？“参加本研究的亚洲学生们也表现出更喜欢直视自己的脸。”康威告诉《新科学家》杂志的记者，但是她同时也指出这只是：“我们并不清楚在公众场合亚洲人是不是也更喜欢被人直视。”

Passage 3本段重点注意语序

       Many people consider the wider use of biofuels a promising way of reducing the amount of surplus carbon dioxide(CO2) being pumped into the air by the world’s mechanized transport. The theory is that plants such as sugar cane, maize (corn, to Americans), oilseed rape and wheat take up CO₂ during their growth, so burning fuels made from them should have no net effect on the amount of that gas in the atmosphere. Biofuels, should not contribute to global warming.

       Theory, though, does not always translate into practice, and just as governments have committed themselves to the greater use of biofuels, questions are being raised about how green this form of energy really is. The latest come from a report produced by a team of scientists working on behalf of the International Council for Science (ICSU), a Paris-based federation of scientific associations from around the world.

       The ICSU report concludes that, so far, the production of biofuels has aggravated rather than ameliorated global warming. In particular, it supports some controversial findings published in 2007 by Paul Crutzen of the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry in Mainz, Germany. Dr. Crutzen concluded that most analyses had underestimated the importance to global warming of a gas called nitrous oxide (N2O) by a factor（系数、倍数） of between three and five. The amount of this gas released by farming biofuel crops such as maize and rape probably negates by itself any advantage offered by reduced emissions of CO₂.

3     全球机动车将大量二氧化碳排放到空气中。许多人认为，若能广泛使用生物燃料，就一定能减少空气中过剩的二氧化碳的含量。其理论依据是：既然甘蔗、玉米、油菜和小麦等植物在生长过程中会吸收二氧化碳，那么燃烧用此类植物做成的燃料就应该能减少大气层中二氧化碳的浓度。因此，使用生物燃料应该不会加重全球变暖问题。

       然而，理论是理论，实践是实践。就在各国政府大力推广生物燃料之时，人们开始质疑：生物燃料倒底环不环保？不久前，国际科学委员会（英文缩写ICSU，设于巴黎，为世界科学家协会联合会）的一些科学家提交了一份报告，再次质疑生物燃料的环保性。

       报告认为：到目前为止，使用生物燃料不但没有缓解，反而加重了温室效应。报告特别支持德国麦克斯普兰克化学研究所的保尔·克鲁兹2007年发表的一些颇受争议的研究结果。克鲁兹博士认为，大部分分析报告都低估了一种名为一氧化二氮的气体对温室效应的影响，低估系数达三到五倍。玉米、油菜等农作物制成的生物燃料释放出来的一氧化二氮所造成的危害，很可能足以抵消其能吸收二氧化碳的这个优点。

Passage1

      IT WAS the summer, scientists now realize, when global warming at last made itself unmistakably felt. We knew that summer 2003 was remarkable: Britain experienced its record high temperature and continental Europe saw forest fires raging out of control, great rivers drying to a trickle and thousands of heat-related deaths. But just how remarkable is only now becoming clear.

      The three months of June, July and August were the warmest ever recorded in western and central Europe, with record national highs in Portugal, Germany and Switzerland as well as in Britain. And they were the warmest by a very long way. Over a great rectangular block of the earth stretching from west of Paris to northern Italy, taking in Switzerland and southern Germany, the average temperature for the summer months was 3.78℃ above the long-term norm, said the Climatic Research Unit(CRU)of the University of East Anglia in Norwich, which is one of the world’s leading institutions for the monitoring and analysis of temperature records.

      That excess might not seem a lot until you are aware of the context—but then you realize it is enormous. There is nothing like this in previous data, anywhere. It is considered so exceptional that Professor Phil Jones, the CRU’s director, is prepared to say openly—in a way few scientists have done before— that the 2003 extreme may be directly attributed, not to natural climate variability, but to global warming caused by human actions.

      Meteorologists have hitherto contented themselves with the formula that recent high temperatures are “consistent with predictions” of climate change. For the great block of the map—that stretching between 35-50N and 0-20E—the CRU has reliable temperature records dating back to 1781. Using as a baseline the average summer temperature recorded between 1961 and 1990,departures from the temperature norm, or “anomalies”, over the area as a whole can easily be plotted. As the graph shows, such is the variability of our climate that over the past 200 years, there have been at least half a dozen anomalies, in terms of excess temperature—the peaks on the graph denoting very hot years—approaching, or even exceeding, 2℃. But there has been nothing remotely like 2003, when the anomaly is nearly four degrees.

      科学家们现在才意识到，正是在2003年的夏天，人们第一次真真切切地感受到了全球变暖。那一年的夏天是如此不同寻常：英国的气温创下历史新高，欧洲大陆森林大火肆虐，数条江河几近枯竭，数以千计的人畜死于热浪。但是这个夏天究竟有多么不同寻常，时至今日人们才开始明白。

      2003年的六、七、八三个月是欧洲西部及中部有史以来最热的几个月。英国、葡萄牙、德国和瑞士的国内气温都达到了史上最高值，并且高出往年很多。据世界顶级气温监测分析机构之一——位于诺维奇的东安格利亚大学气候研究中心（CRU）——报告称，当时从巴黎西部到意大利北部（包括瑞士全境和德国南部）这一矩形区域内的平均气温比常年同期温度高出3.78°C。

      高出3.78°C似乎并不算多，但是当你了解到以往的情况后就会意识到这个数字真的很高。数据显示，此前还没有哪个地方出现过极端气温超过常年同期温度3.78°C的——确实太反常了。因此，CRU中心主任菲尔·琼斯教授准备发布公告：2003年夏天的极端高温并非自然气候变化所致，而是人类活动引发全球变暖所带来的恶果。以前还没有科学家发布过类似公告。

      气象学家们原来一直以为，近年来的高温与气象预测是“一致“的（现在他们知道自己错了）。CRU保存得有北纬35度到50度、东经0度到20度之间这一广大区域自1781年以来所有的可靠的温度记录。以1961至1990年间夏季平均气温为基准，很容易绘制出该区域夏季的偏离正常温度图，或者称“气温异常图”。该图显示：在过去两百年间，至少出现过六次异常高温（图中的波峰代表炎热的年份），高出基准值将近、甚至超过2°C。但是再高也高不过2003年，这一年夏季均温高出基准值近4°C。

Passage 2

     Mindset is all. How you start the year will set the template for the rest, and two scientifically backed character traits hold the key: optimism and resilience (if the prospect leaves you feeling pessimistically spineless, the good news is that you can significantly boost both of these qualities).

      Faced with 12 months of plummeting economics and rising human distress, staunchly maintaining a rosy view might seem deludedly Pollyannaish. But here we encounter the optimism paradox. As Brice Pitt, an emeritus professor of the psychiatry of old age at Imperial College, London, told me:“Optimists are unrealistic. Depressive people see things as they really are, but that is a disadvantage from an evolutionary point of view. Optimism is a piece of evolutionary equipment that carried us through millennia of setbacks.”

      Optimists have plenty to be happy about. In other words, if you can convince yourself that things will get better, the odds of it happening will improve—because you keep on playing the game. In this light, optimism “is a habitual way of explaining your setbacks to yourself”, reports Martin Seligman, the psychology professor and author of Learned Optimism. The research shows that when times get tough, optimists do better than pessimists—they succeed better at work, respond better to stress, suffer fewer depressive episodes and achieve more personal goals.

      Studies also show that belief can help with the financial pinch. Chad Wallens, a social forecaster at the Henley Centre who surveyed middle-class Britons’ beliefs about income, has found that “the people who feel wealthiest, and those who feel poorest, actually have almost the same amount of money at their disposal. Their attitudes and behavior patterns, however, are different from one another.”

   心态决定一切。新年伊始的心态能决定你整年的状态，研究证明：乐观与坚韧最为重要（如果你正因前景黯淡而悲观软弱着，那正好，现在你就有机会学习如何变得乐观坚韧了）。

      如果持续12个月经济衰退、危难不断，这样的困境之下仍然有人看好未来，恐怕是有点盲目乐观。但这正是乐观悖论。正如伦敦帝国理工学院老年精神病学名誉教授布莱斯·皮特所言：“乐观主义者往往是不现实的。悲观主义者则常常看到事物的实际情况，但是从人类进化的角度来看，这反而不是件好事。乐观是人类数千年来战胜各种灾难的进化武器之一。”

      乐观主义者总能看到事物积极的一面。换句话说，如果你能让自己相信情况会越来越好，那么情况越来越好的几率就确实会增加——因为你会坚韧不拔。《学会乐观》一书的作者、心理学教授马丁·塞里格曼认为乐观“是一种向自己解释挫折原因的习惯性行为”。研究表明，乐观者比悲观者更善于应对困境——他们的工作成绩更突出，抗压能力更强，沮丧压抑的时候更少，实现的个人目标也更多。

      研究还发现，乐观的心态能够有效减轻经济拮据感。亨利中心的社会观察员查德·瓦伦斯研究了英国中产阶层的收入理念，结果发现“觉得自己富有和觉得自己贫穷的人，收入其实上是一样的。不同的只是他们对钱的态度和花钱的方式。”

Passage 3

      More and more, the operations of our businesses, governments, and financial institutions are controlled by information that exists only inside computer memories. Anyone clever enough to modify this information for his own purposes can reap big reward. Even worse, a number of people who have done this and been caught at it have managed to get away without punishment.

      It’s easy for computer crimes to go undetected if no one checks up on what the computer is doing. But even if the crime is detected, the criminal may walk away not only unpunished but with a glowing recommendation from his former employers.

      Of course, we have no statistics on crimes that go undetected. But it’s disturbing to note how many of the crimes we do know about were detected by accident, not by systematic inspections or other security procedures. The computer criminals who have been caught may have been the victims of uncommonly bad luck.

      Unlike other lawbreakers, who must leave the country, commit suicide, or go to jail, computer criminals sometimes escape punishment, demanding not only that they not be charged but that they be given good recommendations and perhaps other benefits. All too often, their demands have been met.

      Why? Because company executives are afraid of the bad publicity that would result if the public found out that their computer had been misused. They hesitate at the thought of a criminal boasting in open court of how he juggled the most confidential records right under the nose of the company’s executives, accountants, and security staff. And so another computer criminal departs with the recommendations he needs to continue his crimes elsewhere.

      企业、政府和金融机构的运作越来越受控于只存在于计算机存储器中的信息。任何人只要够聪明，能依照自己的目的修改这些信息，都能大大地捞上一笔。更让人愤愤不平的是，许多这样的计算机犯罪分子即使被抓获了，也仍能逃脱惩罚。

      如果没有人核查计算机运行情况，计算机犯罪就很难被人发现。即便这种犯罪行为被人发现了，罪犯也可能不会受到惩罚，甚至还可能怀揣着前任老板充满溢美之词的推荐信扬长而去。

      没有确凿数据表明有多少犯罪行为未被查出也就罢了，更令人担忧的是：已查出的案件大多不是在进行系统的检查或执行其他安全措施时被发现的，而完全出于偶然。可以说，那些被抓住的计算机犯罪分子只是时运太差的几个倒霉蛋而已。

      一般情况下，违法分子一旦被查获，要么潜逃出国、要么畏罪自杀，要么就只好蹲监狱，但计算机犯罪分子却不同，他们有可能逃脱惩罚——他们不仅会要求前雇主别去报案，还会要求雇主为自己写热情洋溢的推荐信，甚至还会索要“封口费”等等。而他们的要求多半都会得到满足。

      怎么会这样呢？因为管理层担心：如果公众得知自己公司的计算机信息居然已被盗用，公司的声誉会大受影响；一想到罪犯要在法庭上吹嘘自己如何在一大帮行政人员、会计和保安的眼皮底下篡改最为机密的资料档案，他们就只好打消了报案的念头。这样，就又有一个计算机犯罪分子会带着他想要的推荐信溜之大吉，去另一家公司继续实施犯罪行为。

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2. William, Jenny & Andrew Chesterman．The Map: A Beginner’s Guide to Doing Research in Translation Studies． Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004．

3. Gentzler,Edward. Contemporary Translation Theories. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001 ．

4．Levefere, Andre. Translation, Rewriting and Manipulation of Literary Fame. Shanghai: Shanghai

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5. 连淑能．《英汉对比研究》．高等教育出版社．1993．

6． 周兆祥．《翻译与人生》．中国对外翻译出版公司．1998．

7． 段连城．《怎样对外介绍中国》．中国对外翻译出版公司．1993．

8． 琼·平卡姆．《中式英语之鉴》．外语教学与研究出版社．2003．

9．  金圣华．《齐向译道行》．（《英语世界》2004年至今连载）．

10．  方梦之．《实用文本汉译英》．青岛出版社．2004．

11． 陈小慰．《新编实用翻译教程》．经济科学出版社．2006．

12． 张健．《报刊语言翻译》．高等教育出版社．2008．

13.． 陈刚．《旅游翻译与涉外导游》．中国对外翻译出版公司．2004．

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15． 常玉田．《经贸汉译英教程》．对外经济贸易大学出版社．2002．

16． 王颖．《公示语汉英翻译》．对外经济贸易大学出版社．2007．（待考：中国对外翻译出版公司）

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18.  廖七一. 《胡适诗歌翻译研究》, 北京:清华大学出版社,2008.

19．廖七一. 《中国近代翻译思想的嬗变——五四前后文学翻译规范研究》，天津：南开大学出版社，2010年.

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据我自己攻读硕士、博士学位和长期培养指导硕士生、博士生的经验，着重谈谈文科研究生怎样读书，怎样搞科学研究，怎样进行论文选题与写作，供新导师和研究生治学参考。

       研究生读书的特点和要求

       （一）研究生读书要有读书计划
       研究生读书计划包括三个层次。第一个层次：专业读书计划。研究生专业培养方案管着研究生三年的读书计划。第二个层次：研究方向读书计划。研究生入学就有专业方向，专业方向对研究生从事科研工作来讲毕竟太大，还要细化为自己的研究方向。研究生在第二个学期至迟在第三个学期要尽快在导师指导下确定自己的研究方向。研究生要在专业培养方案的基础上，根据自己的需要拟订研究方向的读书计划。第三个层次：学位论文的科研读书计划。在初步完成研究方向读书计划，有了创新观点的基础上，将研究方向细化为学位论文的选题，进而确定自己学位论文的科研读书计划。导师怎样指导研究生？首先就是指导研究生制定这三个层次的读书计划。所以，研究生读书首先要有读书计划，而且必须完成这个读书计划。

       （二）研究生读书要史、著、论相结合
       研究生读书，书目的选择，计划的拟定，必须史、著、论相结合。

       “史”就是每个专业、每个研究方向甚至每个选题的学说史。研究生研究、做学问必须站在巨人的肩膀上，也就是站在前人知识积淀的基础上，向历史学习。比如搞哲学的，要学习欧洲哲学史、中国哲学史、马克思主义哲学史。每个专业必须搞懂本专业学术史。有史的基础，选题、论文才能变得厚实起来。

        “著”指的是古今中外关于这个专业、这个研究方向、这个选题的经典著作、文献。经典著作就是可以称为大家、名家的著作、文献。比如学马克思主义理论专业的，经典著作就是马恩列斯毛邓等经典作家的著作、文献。读经典名著，掌握第一手资料是研究生读书的基本功。研究生掌握了原著、文献，就知道教材内容的出处、来龙去脉，即源头所在，这样研究生就可以在更高的层次上去驾御教材，理解和讲授教材。经典著作与史是什么关系？如果把“史”比作一个常青的“藤”，那么经典著作就是在“藤”上结的一个又一个的“瓜”。掌握了史来读名著，就好比“顺藤摸瓜”，顺着史的线索去读不同时代不同名家的著作。

       “论”就是学术论文。研究生怎样掌握学术动态、学术前沿？就是通过不断发展着的学术论文掌握学术动态。研究生要学会看学术论文，坚持看新杂志、新论文，一周10篇左右，养成习惯，这样知识就永远不会过时，就能把握这个专业、研究方向、选题的学科动态和理论前沿。有经验的导师制定研究生培养方案、课程培养方案，所开课程和书目，就包括史、著、论这三个方面。我们学会了这个方法，按照史、著、论相结合去读书、做学问，由旧专业向新专业扩展，由已知领域向未知领域推进，功底就扎实。就可以避免时下有的青年教师拿一本教材就去开新课误人子弟的做法。

       （三）研究生读书要浏览、泛读、精读相结合

       研究生读书，无论哪一个层次的读书计划，都必须完成。没有数量就没有质量。一般要求研究生平均每周要读500页书。这么多的书在这么短的时间内怎样读好、怎样读完？可以采取浏览、泛读、精读相结合的方法。

       浏览就像是看报纸一样大标题翻一下，了解著作的书名、目录、提要、前言、后记、大体纲要，或者论文的标题、内容摘要，知道著作、论文讲的是什么。浏览主要就是博览群书，涉猎要宽，沙里淘金，精选出进一步泛读、精读的著作或论文。特别是学文科的更要重视浏览。泛读比浏览要求要高。

      泛读就是除了了解著作的书名、目录、提要、前言、后记、大体纲要或者论文的标题、内容摘要外，要求一页一页翻，一目十行。遇到不懂的、精彩的地方不要停，记下页码，继续读。这样可以加快读书速度。浏览、泛读之所以重要，就是因为古今中外书籍虽多，但真正有价值有用的信息却不多。这就需要通过浏览、泛读，筛选有用信息。通过浏览、泛读留下需要精读的书。

      精读就是在浏览、泛读的基础上，对需要精读的著作、论文，一字一句的字斟句酌，甚至连标点、注释都不要错过。精读可分四个层面：（1）认知。做到字面读懂，甚至可以复述，背下来；（2）理解。不仅读懂当下所读章节，而且可以和前后章节，甚至可以和已学的知识融会贯通，接通知识间的联系；（3）质疑。在字面理解、融会贯通的基础上进一步读出了问题，提出质疑。读书读出问题，是科学研究的飞跃，科学哲学家波普尔就认为“科学开始于问题”，“科学家提出问题比解答问题更有意义”。导师要有问题意识，研究生要有问题意识。论文写作必须树立问题意识、问题中心。问题从哪里来？首先从读书中来，书读多了才有问题。当然更重要的是从实践中、从社会调查研究中提出问题；（4）创新。有了问题，进一步读书和调查研究寻求解决问题的答案，做出理论创新。读书提出了问题，而且有了解决问题的方法、解决问题的答案，这样研究就有自己的创新成果。在这个基础上选题，做学位论文就是自己的创新。

       （四）研究生读书要与记笔记相结合

       读书笔记对于研究治学有重要意义。尽管现在有复印、电脑、网络等现代化手段，仍然不可能完全代替笔记，而是笔记的补充。笔记大体有四种形式。

       （1）索引笔记———在浏览、泛读过程中随手记下著作或论文的作者、书名、标题、杂志、出版社、年月、期数、页码以及用简单几个字概括的问题，即在哪本书或哪篇论文上讲了什么问题。记索引笔记的过程就是在读书过程中积累有用信息的过程。平时的积累可以避免使用时的手忙脚乱。

       （2）摘要笔记———除了按索引笔记的要求，记下著作或论文的作者、书名、标题、杂志、出版社、年月、期数、页码外，还要把最重要最有用的观点、材料一字不漏地摘抄（复印）下来。这些观点、材料在写论文引用时可以打上引号，规范引注。写论文的引注材料就是从摘要笔记中来的。

       （3）札记笔记———用自己的话概括所读书或论文的基本观点、中心思想，也可以将自己读书的心得体会随手记下来，少则几个字，多则几十个字、几百个字。古人很重视札记，如读书的旁批、批注等。札记笔记对文献综述很有用，对理论创新和写论文也很有用，我们平时在读书或讨论中闪现的一些思想火花，稍纵即逝，如果不随手记下来，过后再想也想不起来。

       （4）文献综述———研究生做论文的一个基本功，也是掌握学科研究动态的基本要求。现在规定研究生开题报告必须有1000字左右的文献综述，硕士学位论文要附有3000字左右的文献综述，博士论文要附有5000字左右的文献综述。没有万能的导师。研究生的选题和研究超出导师的研究范围，是正常的事。导师就凭文献综述，知道学生读了哪些书，论文是从哪里来的。否则，导师对研究生论文的价值，甚至论文是抄来的还是研究来的都难以肯定。所以必须对研究生开题报告、学位论文提出文献综述的要求。

       文献综述怎么写？主要综述与学位论文选题方向有关的古今中外前人的研究成果，前人的著作、论文提出了哪些有价值的观点，这些观点之间是什么关系。要根据所读的文献梳理出来。通过文献综述，才能找出前人研究空白和薄弱处在哪里，你的论文选题和研究的基础在哪里，突破口在哪里，创新在哪里，这也是论文的理论根据和价值所在。文献综述是做科学研究的基本功，在科学研究中非常重要。研究工作者申报课题首先要求概述国内外的研究现状，也就是做文献综述。

       （五）研究生读书要与社会调查研究相结合

       研究生读书要与社会调查研究相结合，论文选题和研究必须立足于实践，特别提倡深入社会实践做个案调查，这对科研锻炼很有好处。文科研究生通过社会调查可以获得第一手资料，避免网上下载、抄袭。社会调查有很系统的一整套方法。

       我校马列部在研究生培养过程中，十分重视研究生社会调查能力的培养，对研究生的学位论文提出社会调查的要求，并专门邀请有经验的老师为每一届研究生都讲授社会调查研究的方法，教研究生怎样进行调查设计、问卷设计、问卷调查、田野调查、访谈以及对调查资料数据分析处理。研究生在论文的个案研究中，学会了社会调查研究方法，科研能力得到全面的锻炼提高，感到终生受益。所以，读书要与活生生的社会实践紧密结合。特别是我们现在正在从事的中国特色社会主义建设，全面小康和现代化建设，是前无古人的事业。活生生的社会实践提出了许许多多前人从来没有提出过、解答过的问题。必须从社会实际出发才能使我们的理论创新有扎实的根基。

    研究生学位论文的选题与写作

   （一）研究生尽早确定研究方向和选题

       什么是研究方向？简单地概括，所谓研究方向就是科研工作者在较长时间内集中精力从事科学研究活动的学术领域。我把它形象地称作“学术圈地”。就是通过治学建立自己科学研究的自留地。但是，研究生作为科研新手，开始确定的研究方向常常是朦胧的、意向性的。必须通过一个个课题的研究，一篇篇论文的写作，研究方向才逐步确定下来，形成自己稳定的学术领地。研究方向与课题、论文是面与点的关系，研究方向限定了课题、论文的范围，而课题、论文体现和拓展研究方向。研究生的学位论文选题应该和研究方向紧密结合起来。

       （二）确定研究方向与选题的基本原则
       （1）目标先行原则———研究生确定研究方向、论文选题要与毕业以后的前途结合起来考虑。如果要考博，就要将自己的研究方向、论文选题与考博的专业方向、博士生导师的研究方向相接近，博士生导师录取博士生，往往会考虑是否与自己的研究方向一致。如果要就业，或去高校、科研机构，或去机关、企业，就要有意识地将自己的研究方向、论文选题与就业方向靠拢。
       （2）扬长避短原则———研究生确定研究方向、论文选题要尽可能与自己的本科基础、过去工作实践基础、在读地方的基础条件联系起来考虑。要热爱和立足于自己所学的研究生专业方向，努力实现研究生学习与自己以往的知识和实践基础最佳结合，少走弯路，发挥自己的优长，厚积薄发，早出成果。除非特殊需要，一般来讲，不要去搞自己不懂或不熟悉的东西，也不要见异思迁，搞远离自己所学专业方向的东西。
       （3）适应党和国家重大理论和实践需要原则———研究生确定研究方向、论文选题，要瞄准党和国家最关心的重大理论与实践问题。中央一再强调，理论工作者要立足现实，以社会主义现代化建设的重大理论和实践问题为中心。尤其是我们文科专业，一定要有现实意识、问题意识，才能使我们的研究真正有价值。每一年的《国家社科基金指南》就列出了党和国家最关心、最希望解决的重大理论与实践问题。可以根据这些问题细化为自己的研究方向和选题。这一方面可以通过申请课题，获得论文的社会调查研究经费；另一方面，研究工作只有适应党和国家重大理论和实践需要才有前途，才能越做越大。
       （4）理论创新原则———我们国家要建设自主创新型国家，理论工作也要自主创新。研究生确定研究方向、论文选题，做出研究成果，贵在创新，也难在创新。
       （5）小题大做和可行性原则———研究生要把大课题细化为可以具体操作、保证完成的小题目，小题大做，写深写透。马克思主义理论专业的选题尤其要避免大而空。因为研究生三年的学习时间有限，硕士学位论文3万字容量有限，能够将一两个问题说清楚，有新意，就很不错了。

       （三）学位论文开题报告
       学位论文开题报告，是研究生学习和研究的重要环节。应尽早在第三个学期进行。开题报告一般包括以下六个方面内容。
       （1）选题的研究动态———也就是文献综述要1000字左右；
       （2）选题的理论和实践意义———要求选题言之有理，持之有据，说明选题的学术性、现实性、创造性；
       （3）研究提纲———列出研究的基本思路、基本内容、主要观点、重点难点，老师通过研究提纲可以看出选题有没有创新。研究提纲与学位论文写作提纲还有差距，写作提纲是进一步研究后的成果；
       （4）研究方法和技术路线———完成论文研究采取的科学方法，文献资料的阅读和收集，社会调查的技术路线，论文研究和写作的时间安排，研究的阶段性成果和最终成果的提交，等等；
       （5）存在的困难———完成论文研究有哪些困难和问题，需要导师指导或请有关方面帮助解决；
       （6）参考文献———与选题有关的中文、外文主要参考文献。硕士学位和博士学位论文一般要求有几篇外文参考文献。研究生学外语要有用、要管用。
       在研究生开题报告过程中，导师和专家组提的意见越多越细越好。这说明导师对学生负责任。导师和专家组严格负责任才能保证研究生开题、选题的质量。研究生开题报告通过后，还要根据导师和专家组提出的意见，进一步修改完善论文选题。一个好的成熟的论文选题等于研究成功了一半。

       （四）学位论文怎么写
       学位论文是一种特殊的学术论文。而学术论文就是科学研究工作者以理论的形式表述自己科学研究的创新成果，公开发表或宣读。学术论文与一般杂文、理论文章的不同点就在于科学和创新。学位论文是要通过答辩和专家评审并授予相应学位的学术论文。研究生学位论文首先是写给专家看的，要经得起专家的审阅和检验。文科学位论文首先必须讲政治，不违背四项基本原则。也必须讲科学，有学术性学理性。学位论文的核心在创新。学位论文就是写创新观点，即尽可能用自己的话、自己的材料来充分论证自己的创新观点。当然，现今的硕士研究生一般都是科研新手，要求他们的学位论文都达到以上的创新程度，一般很难，不是很现实。所以，我们提倡硕士学位论文多做个案调查研究，多做社会调查研究，从实践中发现新问题、新材料作出理论概括，多少有些原创性的东西，避免东拼西抄，低水平重复，毫无新意。

       研究生学位论文写作，一般应在第三个学期开题报告后，第四个学期集中精力快速成文。研究生学位论文完成初稿后，可以冷处理一段时间。一方面交给导师看，提出指导修改意见；一方面利用这段时间考博、找工作、继续读书研究，还可将学位论文拆成小论文发表。在这一过程中，可能又有新的思考和收获。到最后一个学期正式提交论文前，再回过头静下心来认真修改论文，这样才能跳出原有的思维定势，将论文修改好，准备通过答辩，圆满完成研究生的学习和研究，顺利毕业获得学位。

        ————2011. 9.  29

1.  I had entered the normal school in 1912. I graduated in 1918.

•          During my years in normal school I spent,altogether, only one hundred and sixty dollars-including my numerous registration fees!Of this amount I must have used a third for newspapers, because regular subscriptioss cost me about a dollar a month, and I often bought books and journals on the newsstands.My father cursed me for this extravagance. He called it wasted money on wasted paper. But I had acquired the newspaper reading habit, and from 1911 to 1927, when I climbed up Chingkanshan with the nucleus of China’s first Red army, I never stopped reading the daily papers of Peking,Shanghai and Hunan.

•            (我在1912年进师范学校，于1918年毕业。

•           我在师范学校那些年，总共只花160块钱——包括我多次的报名费！这笔钱中，肯定有1/3花在报纸上，因为长期订阅每月大约需1块钱，而且我还经常在报摊上买书、买杂志。我父亲骂我铺张浪费。他说浪费在废纸上。但我已养成读报习惯。从1911-1927年我和中国第一支红军的主力部队上井冈山为止，我从停止过阅读北京、上海、湖南的日报。)

•           In my last year in school my mother died,and more than ever I lost interest in returning home.I decided,that summer ,to go to Peiping-then Peiping ［or Peking］.Many students from Hunan were planning trips to France ,to study under the “work and learn”scheme ,which France used to recruit young Chinese in her cause during the World War……（我在学校的最后一年，母亲去世了，这样我就更没有兴趣回家了。那年夏天，我决定去北平---当时叫北京。那时，许多湖南的学生正计划以“勤工俭学”的办法去法国留学。在世界大战期间法国就是以这样的办法招募中国青年去为她工作的。）

•           Peking seemed very expensive to me: I had reached the capital by borrowing from friends,when I arrived I had to look for work at once. Yang Chen-ch’I, my former ethics teacher at the normal school, had become a professor at Pei-ta［Peiching TaHsueh］University. I appeared to him for help in finding a job,and  he introduced me to the librarian at Pei-ta. This was Li Ta-chao,who later became a founder of the Communist Party of China and was finally executed by Chang Tso-lin.Li Ta-chao gave me work,as assistant librarian, for which I was paid the generous sum of eight dollars a month.

•        (北京的生活费用对我来说似乎太高：我是向朋友

•       们借钱来到首都的，所以来了以后就得马上找工作。

•       我在师范学校时的伦理学教员杨昌济，这时已是北

•       京大学教授。我请他帮忙找个工作，他把我介绍给

•       北大图书馆馆长。这人就是李大钊，他后来成为中

•       国共产党的一位创始人，最后被张作霖绞杀。李大

•       钊让我作了助理馆员，薪水不低，每月八块大洋。)

         My office was so lowly that people avoided me . One of my tasks was to register the names of people who came to read newspapers, but to most of them I didn’t exist as a human being. Among those who came to read I recognize the names of famous leaders of the literary renaissance movement, in whom I was intensely interested.I tried to begin conversations with them on political and cultural subjects, but they were very busy men. They had no time to listen to an assistant librarian speaking Southern dialect.

•                        (我的职位低下，人们都不愿同我来往。我的其中一项工作就是登记来馆读报者的姓名，但对他们大多数人来说，我这个人就不存在。在这些读报者中，我认出了一些知名的新文化运动领导人，对他们极感兴趣。我试图与他们就政治、文化问题进行交谈，但他们都是大忙人，没有时间听一个讲南方方言的助理馆员唠叨。)

•                        I wasn’t discouraged. I joined the Society of Philosophy, and the Journalism Society,in order to be able to listen to the classes in the university. Of the men I met while I was working in the Pei-talibrary two are now high officials at Nanking,one is vice chaiman of  the［ Chinese ］Soviet government, another became a Communist and later a member of the so-called “Third Party”and still another afterward the Ku Klux Klan in California［!!-E.S.］And here also I met and fell in love with Yang Kaihui,whom I was later to marry. She was the daughter of my good friend Professor Yang.

•                   （但我并不灰心。我参加了哲学会和新闻学会，为的是能在北大旁听。在北大图书馆工作期间我认识的人当中，有两个现在在南京做大官，有一个是（中国）苏维埃政府副主席，还有一个成了共产党员，后来又变成所谓“第三党”党员，再有一个后来在美国加利福尼亚加入了三K党（！！——斯诺注）。这里我还遇见了杨开慧，并爱上了她，后来娶了她。她是我的好朋友杨昌济教授的女儿。)

•                       My interest in politics continued to increase,and my mind turned more and more radical. I have told you of the background for this………………………

•                       My own living conditions in Peking were quite miserable, and in contrast the beauty of the old capital was a living compensation. I stayed in a place called San Yen-ching (“Three Eyes Well”),in a little room which held seven other people. When we were all packed fast on the k’ang there was scarcely room enough for   any of us to breathe. I used to have to warn people on each side of me when I wanted to turn over. But in the parks and the old palace grounds I saw the early Northern spring , I saw the white plum blossoms flower while the ice still held solid over the North Sea. I saw the willows over Pei Hai with the ice crystals hanging from them and remembered the description of the scene by the T’ang poet Chen Chang,who wrote about Pei Hai’s winter jeweled trees, looking “like ten thousand peach trees blossoming”.The innumerable trees of Peking aroused my wonder and admiration.

•                      (from The Autobiography of Mao Tse-Tung  as Told to Edgar Snow,pp.72-81)

•                   （我对政治的兴趣与日俱增，我的思想也越来越激进。我已经把这种情况的背景告诉你了。… …

•                    我自己在北京的生活条件很差，但这座古都之美却是一种活生生的补偿。我住在一个叫“三眼井”的地方，跟另外七个人合住一间小屋。当我们睡在炕上时，挤得连呼吸的空间都没有。我要翻身时，往往得先跟睡在我两旁的人打招呼。但在公园里，在故宫广场上，我却看到了北国的早春，看到了坚冰仍覆盖着北海时，洁白的梅花在怒放。我看到北海的垂柳，枝头悬挂着晶莹剔透的冰拄，从而想起唐朝诗人岑参咏北海冬树挂珠这一写景的名句：“千树万树梨花开”。北京数不清的树木激起了我的惊叹和赞赏。）

•                            （源自埃德加·斯诺录的《毛泽东口述传》）

•                                   

•                   2. Mr.Prime Minister and all of your distinguished     

•                    

•                     guests this evening:

•                          On behalf of all of your American guests ,I wish to thank you for incomparable hospitality for which the Chinese people are justly famous throughout the world. I particularly want to pay tribute ,not only to those who prepared the magnificent dinner,but also to those who have provided the splendid music. Never have I heard American music played better in a foreign land.

•                          Mr.Prime Minister, I wish to thank you for your very gracious and eloquent remarks. At very moment, through the wonder of telecommunications,more people are seeing and hearing what we say than on any other such occasion in the whole history of the world. Yet, what we say here will not be long remembered. What we do here can change the world.

•                         As you said in your toast,the Chinese people are a great people,the American people are a great people.If our two peoples are enemies the future of this world we share together is dark indeed. But if we can find common ground to work together,the chance for world peace is immeasurably increased. In the spirit of frankness which I hope will characterize our talks this week,let us recognize at the outset these points:We have at times in the past been enemies.We have great differences today.What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences. As we discuss our differences,neither of us will compromise our principles.But while we cannot close the gulf between us ,we can try to bridge it so that we may be able to talk across it.

•                        In the spirit of frankness which I hope will characterize our talks this week, let us recognize at the outset these points:We have at times in the past been enemies.We have great differences today.What brings us together is that we have common interests which transcend those differences. As we discuss our differences,neither of us will compromise our principles.But while we cannot close the gulf between us ,we can try to bridge it so that we may be able to talk across it.

•                        So, let us , in those next five days, start a long       march together,not in lockstep,  but on different roads leading to the same goal, the goal of building a world structure of peace and justice in which all may stand together with equal dignity and in which each nation ,large or small, has a right to determine its own form of government, free of outside interference or domination. The world watches. The world listens. The world waits to see what we will do.What is the world? In a personal sense, I think of my eldest daughter whose birthday is today. As I think of her, I think of all the children in the world, in Asia, in Africa, in Europe, in the Americas, most of whom were born since the date of the foundation of the People’s Republic of China.

•                        What legacy shall we leave our children? Are they destined to die for the hatreds which have plagued the old world, or are they destined to live because we had the vision to build a new world?

•                         There is no reason for us to be enemies. Neither of us seeks the territory of the other; neither of us seeks domination over the other; neither of us seeks to stretch out our hands and rule the world.

•                         Chairman Mao has written, “So many deeds cry out to be done, and always urgently; The world rolls on ,Time presses. Ten thousand years are too long,Seize the day ,seize the hour!”

•                        This is the hour. This is the day for our two peoples to rise to the heights of greatness which can build a new and a better world.

•                         In that spirit, I ask all of you present to join me in raising your glasses to Chairman Mao, to Prime Minister, and to the friendship of the Chinese and American people which can lead to friendship and peace for all people in the world.

•                          (A toast given by President Nixon on his first visi to China in 1972)

•                   译文：

•                    总理先生，今天在座的诸位贵宾：

•                         我谨代表您们的所有的美国客人向您们表示感谢，感谢您们的无与伦比的盛情款待。中国人民以这种盛情款待闻名于世。我不仅要特别向那些准备盛大宴会的人们致敬，还要向那些准备这些美妙音乐的人们致敬。我在外国从未听到过演奏得如此美妙的美国音乐。

•                         总理先生，我要感谢您的非常盛情和雄辩的讲话。就在此时此刻，通过奇迹般的电讯，看到和听到我们讲话的人比在整个世界历史上任何其他这样的场合还要多。不过，我们在这里讲的一切，人们不会长久记住。我们在这里所做的一切却能改变世界。

•                       

•                        正如您在祝酒时所说的那样，中国人民是伟大的人民，美国人民是伟大的人民。如果我们两国人民是敌人的话，那么我们共同居住的这个世界的前途就的确是黑暗的了。但是，如果我们能够找到进行合作的共同点，那么实现世界和平的机会就无可估量地大大增加了。

•                        我希望我们这个星期的会谈是坦率的。本着这种坦率的精神，让我们一开始就认识到这样几点：过去的一些时期我们曾经是敌人。今天我们有巨大的分歧。促使我们走到一起的，是我们有超过这些分歧的共同利益。在我们讨论我们的分歧的时候，我们哪一方都不会在原则上妥协。但是，虽然我们不能弥和我们之间的鸿沟，我们却能够设法搭建一    座桥，以便我们能够越过他它进行会谈。

•                         因此，让我们在今后的五天里一起开始一      次长征吧，不是在一起迈步，而是在不同的道路上向同一目标前进。这个目标就是建立一个和平正义的世界结构，在这一世界结构中，所有的人都可以一起享有同等的尊严；每个国家，不论大小，都有权决定自己的政体形式，而不受外来的干涉或统治。全世界都在注视着，全世界都在倾听着，全世界都在等待着看我们将要做什么。这个世界是什么呢？就个人来说，我想到我的大女儿，因为今天是她的生日。当我想到她的时候，我就想到全世界的儿童。亚洲、非洲、欧洲以及美洲的儿童，他们大多数都是在中华人民共和国成立以后出生的。

•                       我们将给我们的孩子们留下什么遗产呢？他们的命运是要为那些使旧世界受苦受难的仇恨而死亡呢，还是他们的命运是由我们有缔造一个新世界的远见而活下去呢？

•                        我们没有理由成为敌人。我们哪一方都不企图统治对方，我们哪一方都不企图伸出手去统治世界。

•                        毛主席写道：“多少事，从来急；天地转，光阴迫。一万年太久，只争朝夕。”

•                        现在就是只争朝夕的时候了，是我们两国人民攀登那种可以缔造一个崭新的、更美好的世界的伟大境界的高峰的时候了。

•                        本着这种精神，我请求诸位同我一起举杯，为毛主席，为周总理，为能够促使全世界所有人民的友谊与和平的中国人民和美国人民之间的友谊，干杯。

•                      （美国总统尼克松1972年访华时的一次祝酒辞）

•                    

•                   3.  Roses, Roses, All the Way

•                                                                       

•                    

•                          By  Martha Duffy

•                          Martha Duffy(1936-1997），美国《时代》周刊

•                          高级编辑，“Roses, Roses, All the Way”选自《时

•                          代》周刊，文章具有书评语言的特征。

•                          It has now  been five years since Margaret Thatcher resigned as Britain’s Prime Minister. In her heyday she strode the international headlines with such bravura that she seemed inevitable, a natural force. The world stage seemed just the right size for her, as she chaffed her conservative soul mate Ronald Reagan or flattered the “new man”, Mikhail Gorbachev.

•                          Now the political world has began to focus on the immensity of her achievement. How on earth did she manage to get there? She was elected to Parliament at 32 in 1958(five years before The Feminine Mystique was published). She parried her way through the complacent,male-dominated councils of power—no woman had ever roiled those waters. Couldn’t the old boys see her coming? Afer all, there was nothing subtle about her personality or her approach.

•                         As The Path to Power(Harper-Collins; 656pages; $30),the second volume of her autobiography, makes clear, Thatcher was probably too simple and direct for the Tories, with their heavy baggage of class and compromise. She traveled light, proud of her roots as a  grocer’s daughter from the small town of Grantham but never tethered by working-class resentments or delusions of inferiority. Her parents taught her the verities they believed in: Methodism, hard work, thrift and the importance of the individual. She has never wavered from them, and they run though the book.

•                         “Nothing in our house was wasted.”  Or, “I had less leisure time than other   children.” These are boasts of a childhood recalled in tranquility. Later they became a philosophy: “Being conservative is never merely a matter of income, but a whole way of life, a will to take responsibility for oneself.”

•                         From the start, she notes almost with bemusement, there was a contrast between her own “executive style” and her colleagues’ “more consultive style”. Thatcher laid down the law. In her 11-year leadership, she broke the crippling power of British unions, made many thousands of her countrymen homeowners, strengthened British ties with the U.S.and the Soviet Union and gave voice to Britain’s reluctance about Europe, a reluctance that still plagues her successor, John Major.

•                         The Downing Street Years, the first volume of her memoirs, covered her time in power. This is one more interesting and better fun, a  formidable leader looking back on her early winning battles. She is known now as the Iron Lady, but as a pretty, naïve young pol who cut through cant, prevarication and some very real problems, she must have been exhilarating. Her rise ,as she once described the star-is-born press coverage that greeted her maiden speech in Commons, was “rose,roses all the way.”

•                          In a final section on the ’90s political scene,she calls for renewed dedication to  her principles.  The imperiled John Major cannot take comfort in the timing of The Path to Power. Thatcher has relentlessly flogged the book in Britain and the U.S.,  giving  TV interviews that scourge what she sees as the collapse of her country’s leadership. The one thing she doesn’t say is that as this old     century draws to a close, there simply aren’t that many leaders. Thatcher was one .