Beginning in 1950, the CAA began consolidating some airport traffic control towers at smaller airports with airway communication stations, the forerunners of today's flight service stations. By 1958, it ran 84 of these combined station-towers, the last of which closed in 1981.
从1950年起，民航局就在一些小机场的空管塔台建立航路通讯站——今天的飞行服务站的前身。到1958年，民航局下属有84个塔站合一的机构，这些机构最后于1981年关闭。
In 1960, the FAA began successful testing of a system under which flights in certain positive control areas were required to carry a radar beacon, called a transponder, that identified the aircraft and helped to improve radar performance. Pilots in this airspace were also required to fly on instruments regardless of the weather and to remain in contact with controllers. Under these conditions, controllers were able to reduce the separation between aircraft by as much as half the standard distance.
节选自天空博客
声明
本文重要内容均来自已经公开的渠道。特此声明！
事件始末
2008年4月30日，厦门航空公司MF8052航班（大连—杭州）B737-700/B2992号机与南航大连分公司CZ6621航班（大连—沈阳）A319/B2296号机在大连周水子机场跑道上险些相撞。
20:47:20，CZ6621从西机坪18号机位滑出。20:50到达A滑10号跑道外等待点，塔台指挥飞机进跑道等待。20:53:17，管制员发布起飞指令。
20:48:13，MF8052从4号桥推出，管制员指挥该机经A滑行道滑出，使用10号跑道。20:53:32，管制员指示该机“前机起飞后，可以进跑道”（实际上，MF8052此时已经从E联络道进入跑道了），机组随即呼叫塔台“嗯……稍等稍等，你让那个稍等起飞，我进错跑道了。唉……塔台塔台，你让他中断，塔台你让他中断”。塔台当即指令CZ6621“立即中断起飞”。
20:53:47，CZ6621机组听到MF8052进错跑道的信息及
The early en route controllers tracked the position of planes using maps and blackboards and little boat-shaped weights that came to be called shrimp boats. They had no direct radio link with aircraft but used telephones to stay in touch with airline dispatchers, airway radio operators, and airport traffic controllers. These individuals fed information to the en route controllers and also relayed their instructions to pilots.
早期的航路管制员用地图、黑板和后来被戏称为小虾船的船型砝码来记录飞机的位置。他们不与飞机建立直接的无线电联络，而是同航空公司签派员、航路电台工作人员和机场管制员保持联系。这些人员反馈信息给航路管制员，同时也负责传递管制指令给飞行员。
In July 1936, en route ATC became a federal responsibility, and the first appropriation of $175,000 was made. The Federal Government provided airway traffic control service, but local government authorities where the towers were located continued to operate those facilities.
In the earliest days of aviation, so few aircraft were in the skies that there was little need for ground-based control of aircraft. In Europe, though, aircraft were often flown in different countries, and it soon became apparent that some kind of standard rules were needed. In 1919, the International Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN) was created to develop General Rules for Air Traffic. Its rules and procedures were applied in most countries where aircraft operated.
在航空活动的早期，天空中只有少量飞行器，所以在地面管制飞行并无必有。而在欧洲，飞机经常在各国之间穿梭飞行，很快有人意识到，是应该建立某些规则了。1919年，国际航空委员会（ICAN）成立，并开始制定空中交通通用规则。随后其中的规定和程序在有关的大部分国家得到执行。
The United States did not sign the ICAN Convention, but later developed its own set of air traffic rules after passage of the Air Commerce Act of 1926. This legislation authorized the Department of Commerce to establish ai
The above interactive graphic shows pilot and air traffic
controller interact during each phase of a typical commercial
flight profile.
上图展示了飞行员与管制员在正常商业飞行的每一阶段相互配合的过程。
Preflight: the pilot receives the most recent weather information
and a fight plan has been filed. Prior to takeoff, the pilot
performs the flight check routine, pushes back the aircraft from
the terminal’s gate, and taxis out to the designated takeoff
runway.
飞行准备：飞行员接收最新气象信息，这时飞行计划已签发。起飞前，飞行员进行例行检查，将飞机从航站楼的登机口推出并滑行到指定的起飞跑道。
Just as drivers on our roadways have rules they must follow and laws they must obey, pilots flying in the airways above us are also governed by rules and laws. Flight rules are designed to prevent the chaos that would occur if everyone who piloted an airplane flew without regard for others. The rules, actually Federal Laws, are called the Federal Aviation Regulations or FARs.
就像在公路行驶的汽车驾驶员有要遵守的规则和法律一样，在蓝天上飞行的飞行员也有需要遵守的规则和法律。制定飞行规则是为了避免假如每个人都自己飞行而不顾他人所讲造成的混乱局面。这些规则，实际上是联邦法律，叫做《联邦航空规则》，或者FARs。
The United States airspace is divided
into 21 zones (centers), and each zone is divided into sectors.
Also within each zone are portions of airsp
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